1
|
Plümers R, Dreier J, Knabbe C, Steinmann E, Todt D, Vollmer T. Kinetics of Hepatitis E Virus Infections in Asymptomatic Persons. Emerg Infect Dis 2024; 30:934-940. [PMID: 38666600 PMCID: PMC11060471 DOI: 10.3201/eid3005.231764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
To determine the kinetics of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in asymptomatic persons and to evaluate viral load doubling time and half-life, we retrospectively tested samples retained from 32 HEV RNA-positive asymptomatic blood donors in Germany. Close-meshed monitoring of viral load and seroconversion in intervals of ≈4 days provided more information about the kinetics of asymptomatic HEV infections. We determined that a typical median infection began with PCR-detectable viremia at 36 days and a maximum viral load of 2.0 × 104 IU/mL. Viremia doubled in 2.4 days and had a half-life of 1.6 days. HEV IgM started to rise on about day 33 and peaked on day 36; IgG started to rise on about day 32 and peaked on day 53. Although HEV IgG titers remained stable, IgM titers became undetectable in 40% of donors. Knowledge of the dynamics of HEV viremia is useful for assessing the risk for transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E.
Collapse
|
2
|
Courjon J, Portillo V, Yerly S, Vetter P, Schibler M, Mappoura M, Morin S, Giannotti F, Mamez AC, van Delden C, Kaiser L, Chalandon Y, Masouridi-Levrat S, Neofytos D. Hepatitis E Virus Infection Epidemiology in Recipients of Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant. Open Forum Infect Dis 2023; 10:ofad595. [PMID: 38094666 PMCID: PMC10716736 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofad595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Among 292 recipients of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant (2018-2022), 64 (21.9%) tested positive for anti-hepatitis E virus (HEV) immunoglobulin G. Among 208 recipients tested by plasma/serum HEV polymerase chain reaction (2012-2022), 3 (1.4%) primary HEV infections were diagnosed; in 1 patient, plasma HEV polymerase chain reaction relapsed positive for 100 days. HEV infection remains rare albeit associated with persistent viral replication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johan Courjon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Université Côte d’Azur, Inserm, C3M, Nice, France
| | - Vera Portillo
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sabine Yerly
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pauline Vetter
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Geneva Center for Emerging Viral Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Schibler
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maria Mappoura
- Division of Hematology, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Geneva and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Morin
- Division of Hematology, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Geneva and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Federica Giannotti
- Geneva Center for Emerging Viral Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Claire Mamez
- Division of Hematology, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Geneva and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Christian van Delden
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Kaiser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yves Chalandon
- Division of Hematology, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Geneva and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stavroula Masouridi-Levrat
- Division of Hematology, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Geneva and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dionysios Neofytos
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
He Q, Zhang F, Shu J, Li S, Liang Z, Du M, Liu X, Liu T, Li M, Yin X, Pan Q, Lu F, Wang L, Wang L. Immunocompromised rabbit model of chronic HEV reveals liver fibrosis and distinct efficacy of different vaccination strategies. Hepatology 2022; 76:788-802. [PMID: 35278241 DOI: 10.1002/hep.32455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS HEV infection can lead to chronicity and rapid progression to liver fibrosis and cirrhosis in immunocompromised organ transplant recipients. Robust animal models are urgently needed to study the pathogenesis and test the efficacy of vaccines and antiviral drugs in immunosuppressed settings. APPROACH AND RESULTS Cyclosporin A was used to induce immunosuppression. Rabbits were challenged with genotype 3 or 4 HEV (i.e., the rabbit-derived HEV3 and human-derived HEV3 or HEV4). We assessed HEV markers within 13 weeks post inoculation (wpi) and pathological changes by hematoxylin and eosin and Masson staining at 4, 8, or 13 wpi. Chronic HEV infection was successfully established in immunocompromised rabbits. HEV RNA and/or antigens were detected in the liver, kidney, intestine, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid samples. Chronically infected animals exhibited typical characteristics of liver fibrosis development. Intrahepatic transcriptomic analysis indicated activation of both innate and adaptive immunity. Establishment of HEV chronicity likely contributed to the inhibited T-cell immune response. Ribavirin is effective in clearing HEV infection in immunocompromised rabbits. Most interestingly, vaccination completed before immunosuppression conferred full protection against both HEV3 and HEV4 infections, but vaccination during immunosuppression was only partially protective, and the efficacy did not improve with increased or additional vaccine doses. CONCLUSIONS The immunocompromised rabbit model of both chronic HEV3 and HEV4 infection that was established captured the key features of chronic HEV infection in transplant patients, including liver fibrogenesis, and revealed the distinct effectiveness of vaccination administered before or under immunosuppression. This rabbit model is valuable for understanding the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis E, as well as for evaluating antiviral agents and vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiyu He
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Jingyi Shu
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Shuangshuang Li
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaochao Liang
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Minghao Du
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Tianxu Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Manyu Li
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Qiuwei Pan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Fengmin Lu
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China.,Peking University-Sansure Biotech Joint Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China.,Peking University-Sansure Biotech Joint Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sayed IM, Verhoye L, Montpellier C, Abravanel F, Izopet J, Cocquerel L, Meuleman P. Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Open Reading Frame 2 Antigen Kinetics in Human-Liver Chimeric Mice and Its Impact on HEV Diagnosis. J Infect Dis 2020; 220:811-819. [PMID: 31001628 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis E virus infection (HEV) is an emerging problem in developed countries. Diagnosis of HEV infection is based on the detection of HEV-specific antibodies, viral RNA, and/or antigen (Ag). Humanized mice were previously reported as a model for the study of HEV infection, but published data were focused on the quantification of viral RNA. However, the kinetics of HEV Ag expression during infection remains poorly understood. METHODS Plasma specimens and suspensions of fecal specimens from HEV-infected and ribavirin-treated humanized mice were analyzed using HEV antigen-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis, density gradient analysis, and Western blotting. RESULT Open reading frame 2 (ORF2) Ag was detected in both plasma and stool from HEV-infected mice, and levels increased over time. Contrary to HEV RNA, ORF2 Ag levels were higher in mouse plasma than in stool. Interestingly, ORF2 was detected in plasma from mice that tested negative for HEV RNA in plasma but positive for HEV RNA in stool and was detected after viral clearance in mice that were treated with ribavirin. Plasma density gradient analysis revealed the presence of the noninfectious glycosylated form of ORF2. CONCLUSION ORF2 Ag can be used as a marker of active HEV infection and for assessment of the effect of antiviral therapy, especially when fecal samples are not available or molecular diagnostic tests are not accessible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M Sayed
- Laboratory of Liver Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium.,Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt
| | - Lieven Verhoye
- Laboratory of Liver Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Claire Montpellier
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, INSERM (U1019), CNRS (UMR 8204), Lille University, Toulouse, France.,CHU Lille, Lille, Toulouse, France
| | - Florence Abravanel
- INSERM (U1043), IFR-BMT, Toulouse, France.,Laboratory of Virology, CHU Purpan, Toulouse, France.,Université Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Izopet
- INSERM (U1043), IFR-BMT, Toulouse, France.,Laboratory of Virology, CHU Purpan, Toulouse, France.,Université Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Laurence Cocquerel
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, INSERM (U1019), CNRS (UMR 8204), Lille University, Toulouse, France.,CHU Lille, Lille, Toulouse, France
| | - Philip Meuleman
- Laboratory of Liver Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hudu SA, Niazlin MT, Nordin SA, Harmal NS, Tan SS, Omar H, Shahar H, Mutalib NA, Sekawi Z. Hepatitis E virus isolated from chronic hepatitis B patients in Malaysia: Sequences analysis and genetic diversity suggest zoonotic origin. ALEXANDRIA JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajme.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shuaibu Abdullahi Hudu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra, Malaysia
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Mohd Taib Niazlin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra, Malaysia
| | - Syafinaz Amin Nordin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra, Malaysia
| | - Nabil Saad Harmal
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Asia Metropolitan University, 81750 Johor Bahru, Malaysia
| | - Soek Siam Tan
- Department of Hepatology, Selayang Hospital, Lebuh Selayang-Kepong , Batu Caves, 68100 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Haniza Omar
- Department of Hepatology, Selayang Hospital, Lebuh Selayang-Kepong , Batu Caves, 68100 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Hamiza Shahar
- Department of Hepatology, Selayang Hospital, Lebuh Selayang-Kepong , Batu Caves, 68100 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Noor Aliza Mutalib
- Department of Hepatology, Selayang Hospital, Lebuh Selayang-Kepong , Batu Caves, 68100 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Zamberi Sekawi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Transmission of a Novel Genotype of Hepatitis E Virus from Bactrian Camels to Cynomolgus Macaques. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.02014-18. [PMID: 30700602 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02014-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is zoonotic and a major cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. Recently, we identified a novel HEV genotype 8 (HEV8) in Bactrian camels in Xinjiang, China. However, the epidemiology, pathogenicity, and zoonotic potential of HEV8 are unclear. Here, we present the prevalence of HEV8 in China and investigate its pathogenicity and cross-species transmission in cynomolgus macaques. Fresh fecal and milk samples from Bactrian camels collected from four provinces/regions in China were screened for HEV RNA by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). An HEV8-positive sample was used to inoculate two cynomolgus macaques to examine the potential for cross-species infection. The pathogenicity of HEV8 was analyzed by testing HEV markers and liver function during the study period and histopathology of liver biopsy specimens at 3, 13, and 25 weeks postinoculation. Extrahepatic replication was tested by using reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and immunofluorescence assays. The overall prevalence of HEV8 RNA in Chinese Bactrian camels was 1.4% (4/295), and positive samples were found in three different provinces/regions in China. Histopathology confirmed acute and chronic HEV8 infections in the two monkeys. Multiple tissues were positive for HEV RNA and ORF2 proteins. Renal pathology was observed in the monkey with chronic hepatitis. Whole-genome sequencing showed only 1 to 3 mutations in the HEV8 in the fecal samples from the two monkeys compared to that from the camel. HEV8 is circulating in multiple regions in China. Infection of two monkeys with HEV8 induced chronic and systemic infections, demonstrating the high potential zoonotic risk of HEV8.IMPORTANCE It is estimated that one-third of the world population have been exposed to hepatitis E virus (HEV). In developed countries and China, zoonotic HEV strains are responsible for almost all acute and chronic HEV infection cases. It is always of immediate interest to investigate the zoonotic potential of novel HEV strains. In 2016, we discovered a novel HEV genotype, HEV8, in Bactrian camels, but the epidemiology, zoonotic potential, and pathogenicity of the virus were unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that HEV8 was circulating in multiple regions in China and was capable of infecting cynomolgus macaques, a surrogate for humans, posing high risk of zoonosis. Chronic hepatitis, systemic infection, and renal pathology were observed. Collectively, these data indicate that HEV8 exhibits a high potential for zoonotic transmission. Considering the importance of Bactrian camels as livestock animals, risk groups, such as camelid meat and milk consumers, should be screened for HEV8 infection.
Collapse
|
7
|
O'Gorman J, Burke Á, O'Flaherty N. Hepatitis E virus - key points for the clinical haematologist. Br J Haematol 2018; 181:579-589. [PMID: 29468650 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.15133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In recent years there has been a paradigm shift in our understanding of the epidemiology and clinical features of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection. Once classically described as an acute hepatitis associated with waterborne outbreaks in areas of poor sanitation, HEV is now recognised to be endemic in Europe and is probably zoonotic in origin. Evidence for transfusion-transmitted HEV has prompted the introduction of blood donor screening in a number of countries, but the risk to the haematology patient from food sources remains. The aim of this review therefore, is to equip the clinical haematologist with the knowledge required to diagnose HEV infection and to aid decision-making in patient management. The article also provides information on addressing patient concerns about their risk of acquiring hepatitis E and how this risk can be mitigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne O'Gorman
- Consultant Clinical Microbiologist, National Virus Reference Laboratory, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Áine Burke
- Consultant Haematologist, Sligo University Hospital, Sligo, Ireland
| | - Niamh O'Flaherty
- Consultant Clinical Microbiologist, National Virus Reference Laboratory, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.,Consultant Clinical Microbiologist, Irish Blood Transfusion Service, Dublin 8, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Detection and Quantification by a Real-Time Reverse Transcription-PCR Assay Calibrated to the World Health Organization Standard for HEV RNA. J Clin Microbiol 2017; 55:1478-1487. [PMID: 28228493 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02334-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has emerged as a cause of chronic hepatitis among immunocompromised patients. Molecular assays have become important tools for the diagnosis and management of these chronically infected patients. A real-time reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assay utilizing Pleiades probe chemistry and an RNA internal control for the simultaneous detection and quantification of HEV RNA in human serum was developed based on an adaptation of a previously described and broadly reactive primer set targeting the overlapping open reading frame 2/3 (ORF2/3) nucleotide sequence of HEV. A chimeric bovine viral diarrhea virus construct containing an HEV RNA insert (SynTura HEV) was developed, value assigned with the first World Health Organization (WHO) international standard for HEV RNA (code 6329/10), and used to prepare working assay calibrators and controls, which supported an assay quantification range of 100 to 5,000,000 IU/ml. The analytical sensitivity (95% detection rate) of this assay was 25.2 IU/ml (95% confidence interval [CI], 19.2 to 44.1 IU/ml). The assay successfully amplified 16 different HEV sequences with significant nucleotide mismatching in primer/probe binding regions, while evaluation of a WHO international reference panel for HEV genotypes (code 8578/13) showed viral load results falling within the result ranges generated by WHO collaborative study participants for all panel members (genotypes 1 to 4). Broadly reactive RT-qPCR primers targeting HEV ORF2/3 were successfully adapted for use in an assay based on Pleiades probe chemistry. The availability of secondary standards calibrated to the WHO HEV international standard can improve the standardization and performance of assays for the detection and quantification of HEV RNA.
Collapse
|
9
|
Peters van Ton AM, Gevers TJG, Drenth JPH. Antiviral therapy in chronic hepatitis E: a systematic review. J Viral Hepat 2015; 22:965-73. [PMID: 25760481 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E viral infection can lead to a chronic infection in immunocompromised patients, resulting in progressive liver disease and cirrhosis. Isolated cases have shown that treatment with ribavirin or pegylated interferon-α can result in viral eradication. This systematic review evaluated efficacy and safety of both treatments in chronic hepatitis E. A systematic literature search was performed on PubMed, Web of Science and clinicaltrials.gov for articles and abstracts. The keywords '"Hepatitis E" or HEV' AND 'ribavirin or Rebetol or Copegus' OR 'pegylated interferon OR peginterferon' were combined. The primary outcome was sustained viral response (SVR). Secondary endpoints include rapid viral response (RVR), relapse rates and side effects. Twenty-four studies matched our criteria, representing a total of 105 ribavirin-treated and 8 pegylated interferon-treated patients. The majority of patients had a solid organ transplant. Sixty-four per cent of ribavirin-treated patients achieved a SVR at 6 months after treatment cessation compared to 2/8 peginterferon-treated patients. Ribavirin was relatively well tolerated with the main side effect being anaemia, requiring dose reduction in 28% of patients. Peginterferon leads to acute transplant rejection in 2/8 patients. Ribavirin monotherapy appears to be an effective and safe treatment in all immunocompromised patients with chronic hepatitis E. The use of pegylated interferon in transplant patients may lead to transplant rejection and is not recommended. Therefore, ribavirin should be the antiviral treatment of choice in chronic hepatitis E.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Peters van Ton
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - T J G Gevers
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - J P H Drenth
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|