Applications of nanoliposomes in cheese technology

Liposomes as Carriers of Bioactive Compounds in Human Nutrition

This article provides an overview of the literature data on the role of liposomal structures and encapsulated substances in food technology and human nutrition. The paper briefly describes how liposomes are created and how they encapsulate food ingredients, which can either be individual compounds or plant extracts. Another very interesting application of liposomes is their use as antimicrobial carriers to protect food products from spoilage during storage. The encapsulation of food ingredients in liposomes can increase their bioavailability, which is particularly important for compounds with health-promoting properties but low bioavailability. Particular attention was paid to compounds such as phytosterols, which lower blood cholesterol levels but have very low absorption in the human body. In addition, consumer expectations and regulations for liposomes in food are discussed. To date, no in vivo human studies have been conducted to indicate which encapsulation methods give the best results for gastrointestinal effects and which food-added substances are most stable during food storage and processing. The paper identifies further lines of research that are needed before liposomes can be introduced into food.

Glycomacropeptide: A comprehensive understanding of its major biological characteristics and purification methodologies

Glycomacropeptide (GMP) is a bioactive peptide derived from whey protein, consisting of 64 amino acids. It is a phenylalanine-free peptide, making it a beneficial dietary option for individuals dealing with phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU is an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by high levels of phenylalanine in the bloodstream, resulting from a deficiency of phenylalanine dehydrogenase in affected individuals. Consequently, patients with PKU require lifelong adherence to a low-phenylalanine diet, wherein a significant portion of their protein intake is typically sourced from a phenylalanine-free amino acid formula. GMP has several nutritional values, numerous bioactivity properties, and therapeutic effects in various inflammatory disorders. Despite all these features, the purification of GMP is an imperative requirement; however, there are no unique methods for achieving this goal. Traditionally, several methods have been used for GMP purification, such as thermal or acid treatment, alcoholic precipitation, ultrafiltration (UF), gel filtration, and membrane separation techniques. However, these methods have poor specificity, and the presence of large amounts of impurities can interfere with the analysis of GMP. More efficient and highly specific GMP purification methods need to be developed. In this review, we have highlighted and summarized the current research progress on the major biological features and purification methodologies associated with GMP, as well as providing an extensive overview of the recent developments in using charged UF membranes for GMP purification and the influential factors.

Liposome vesicle cannot be formed in non-aqueous phase

In the February of 2023, Yang et al., report a paper to unreal mechanisms of protein and lipid oxidation in mayonnaise with claim of liposome formation in Mayonaise. As bilayer liposome has spherical or oval like structure composed bilayers separated by aqueous region, there is doubt for formation possibility of liposome in non-aqueous phase. In this bilayer vesicle a hydrophobic layer has been replaced between two outer and inner hydrophilic molecules, so regarding thermodynamic rules for tendency to a minimum enthalpy formation of bilayer vesicle with a hydrophobic outer layer in Mayonaise matrix is not possible. It seems more likely the micelle structure instead of liposome. The images in the article is indeed hard to see a liposomal bilayer structure. In other case, more explanation and evidences are required to clarify ambiguous points in this claim. So, arrangement of self-assembling of water soluble phospholipid may occur just in aqueous phase liposome formation is not possible. Also no document exists for bilayer of vesicles. So, those formed vesicle could be reverse micelle not liposome which usually form following dispersion of phospholipids in aqueous phase.

Nanostructured Antimicrobials for Quality and Safety Improvement in Dairy Products

In the food sector, one of the most important economic activities is the dairy industry, which has been facing many challenges in order to meet the increasing demand by consumers for natural and minimally processed products with high quality. In this sense, the application of innovative and emerging technologies can be an interesting alternative, for example, the use of nanotechnology in packaging and as delivery systems. This technology has the potential to improve the quality and safety of dairy products, representing an interesting approach for delivering food preservatives and improving the mechanical, barrier and functional properties of packaging. Several applications and promising results of nanostructures for dairy product preservation can be found throughout this review, including the use of metallic and polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanostructures, nanofibers, nanofilms and nanocoatings. In addition, some relevant examples of the direct application of nanostructured natural antimicrobials in milk and cheese are presented and discussed, as well as the use of milk agar as a model for a preliminary test. Despite their high cost and the difficulties for scale-up, interesting results of these technologies in dairy foods and packaging materials have promoted a growing interest of the dairy industry.

Fortification by design: A rational approach to designing vitamin D delivery systems for foods and beverages

Over the past few decades, vitamin D deficiency has been recognized as a serious global public health challenge. The World Health Organization has recommended fortification of foods with vitamin D, but this is often challenging because of its low water solubility, poor chemical stability, and low bioavailability. Studies have shown that these challenges can be overcome by encapsulating vitamin D within well-designed delivery systems containing nanoscale or microscale particles. The characteristics of these particles, such as their composition, size, structure, interfacial properties, and charge, can be controlled to attain desired functionality for specific applications. Recently, there has been great interest in the design, production, and application of vitamin-D loaded delivery systems. Many of the delivery systems reported in the literature are unsuitable for widespread application due to the complexity and high costs of the processing operations required to fabricate them, or because they are incompatible with food matrices. In this article, the concept of "fortification by design" is introduced, which involves a systematic approach to the design, production, and testing of colloidal delivery systems for the encapsulation and fortification of oil-soluble vitamins, using vitamin D as a model. Initially, the challenges associated with the incorporation of vitamin D into foods and beverages are reviewed. The fortification by design concept is then described, which involves several steps: (i) selection of appropriate vitamin D form; (ii) selection of appropriate food matrix; (iii) identification of appropriate delivery system; (iv) identification of appropriate production method; (vii) establishment of appropriate testing procedures; and (viii) system optimization.

Triggered and controlled release of bioactives in food applications

Bioactive compounds (e.g., nutraceuticals, micronutrients, antimicrobial, antioxidant) are added to food products and formulations to enhance sensorial/nutritional attributes and/or shelf-life. Many of these bioactives are susceptible to degradation when exposed to environmental and processing factors. Others involve in undesirable interactions with food constituents. Encapsulation is a useful tool for addressing these issues through various stabilization mechanisms. Besides protection, another important requirement of encapsulation is to design a carrier that predictably releases the encapsulated bioactive at the target site to elicit its intended functionality. To this end, controlled release carrier systems derived from interactive materials have been developed and commercially exploited to meet the requirements of various applications. This chapter provides an overview on basic controlled and triggered release concepts relevant to food and active packaging applications. Different approaches to encapsulate bioactive compounds and their mode of release are presented, from simple blending with a compatible matrix to complex multiphase carrier systems. To further elucidate the mass transport processes, selected diffusion and empirical release kinetic models are presented, along with their brief historical significance. Finally, interactive carriers that are responsive to moisture, pH, thermal and chemical stimuli are presented to illustrate how these triggered release mechanisms can be useful for food applications.

Challenging Sustainable and Innovative Technologies in Cheese Production: A Review

It is well known that cheese yield and quality are affected by animal genetics, milk quality (chemical, physical, and microbiological), production technology, and the type of rennet and dairy cultures used in production. Major differences in the same type of cheese (i.e., hard cheese) are caused by the rennet and dairy cultures, which affect the ripening process. This review aims to explore current technological advancements in animal genetics, methods for the isolation and production of rennet and dairy cultures, along with possible applications of microencapsulation in rennet and dairy culture production, as well as the challenge posed to current dairy technologies by the preservation of biodiversity. Based on the reviewed scientific literature, it can be concluded that innovative approaches and the described techniques can significantly improve cheese production.

Nanoliposomes and Tocosomes as Multifunctional Nanocarriers for the Encapsulation of Nutraceutical and Dietary Molecules

Nanoscale lipid bilayers, or nanoliposomes, are generally spherical vesicles formed by the dispersion of phospholipid molecules in a water-based medium by energy input. The other nanoscale object discussed in this entry, i.e., tocosome, is a recently introduced bioactive carrier made mainly from tocopheryl phosphates. Due to their bi-compartmental structure, which consists of lipidic and aqueous compartments, these nanocarriers are capable of carrying hydrophilic and hydrophobic material separately or simultaneously. Nanoliposomes and tocosomes are able to provide protection and release of sensitive food-grade bioactive materials in a sustained manner. They are being utilized for the encapsulation of different types of bioactive materials (such as drugs, vaccines, antimicrobials, antioxidants, minerals and preservatives), for the enrichment and fortification of different food and nutraceutical formulations and manufacturing of functional products. However, a number of issues unique to the nutraceutical and food industry must first be resolved before these applications can completely become a reality. Considering the potentials and promises of these colloidal carrier systems, the present article reviews various aspects of nanoliposomes, in comparison with tocosomes, including the ingredients used in their manufacture, formation mechanisms and issues pertaining to their application in the formulation of health promoting dietary supplements and functional food products.

Effect of nanoliposomes containing Zataria multiflora Boiss. essential oil on gene expression of Shiga toxin 2 in Escherichia coli O157:H7

AIMS

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 as a major human pathogen is responsible for food borne outbreaks, bloody diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome and even death. In this study, the antibacterial activity of the Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZMEO) and nanoliposome-encapsulated ZMEO was evaluated on the pathogenicity of E. coli O157:H7.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of essential oil (EO) were determined against the bacterium before and after encapsulation into nanoliposome. Then, the effect of subinhibitory concentrations was evaluated on Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2) production. The effect of free and nanoliposomal EO was also studied on the gene expression of Stx2 by real-time PCR. It was found that inhibitory activity of EO was improved after incorporation into nanoliposomes (P < 0·05). The MIC of free EO against E. coli O157:H7 was 0·03% (v/v), while this value decreased to 0·015%, after encapsulation of EO into nanoliposomes. Furthermore, subinhibitory concentrations of liposomal EO (50 and 75% MIC) had significantly higher inhibitory effect on Stx2 titre than its free form (P < 0·05). Sub-MICs of nanoencapsulated EO also showed a better activity in reduction of Stx2A gene expression than free EO. Using 75% MIC of nanoliposomal EO, the relative transcriptional level of Stx2A gene was decreased from 0·721 to 0·646.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of present study suggest that application of nanoliposomes can improve the antibacterial effect of EOs like ZMEO.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Due to the enhancement of antimicrobial activity, nanoencapsulation of plant EOs and extracts may increase their commercial application not only in food area but also in the pharmaceutics, cosmetics and health products.