Overview of Food Safety Hazards in the European Dairy Supply Chain

Evaluating the effects of temperature and agitation on biofilm formation of bacterial pathogens isolated from raw cow milk

OBJECTIVES

To study the effect of agitation and temperature on biofilm formation (cell aggregates embedded within a self-produced matrix) by pathogenic bacteria isolated from Raw cow milk (RCM).

METHODS

A 40 RCM samples were gathered from eight dairy farms in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. After bacterial culturing and isolation, gram staining was performed, and all pathogenic, identified using standard criteria established by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), and non-pathogenic bacteria were identified using VITEK-2 and biochemical assays. To evaluate the effects of temperature and agitation on biofilm formation, isolated pathogenic bacteria were incubated for 24 h under the following conditions: 4 °C with no agitation (0 rpm), 15 °C with no agitation, 30 °C with no agitation, 30 °C with 60 rpm agitation, and 30 °C with 120 rpm agitation. Then, biofilms were measured using a crystal violet assay.

RESULTS

Of the eight farm sites, three exhibited non-pathogenic bacterial contamination in their raw milk samples. Of the total of 40 raw milk samples, 15/40 (37.5%; from five farms) were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. Overall, 346 bacteria were isolated from the 40 samples, with 329/346 (95.1%) considered as non-pathogenic and 17/346 (4.9%) as pathogenic. Most of the isolated pathogenic bacteria exhibited a significant (p < 0.01) increase in biofilm formation when grown at 30 °C compared to 4 °C and when grown with 120 rpm agitation compared to 0 rpm.

CONCLUSION

Herein, we highlight the practices of consumers in terms of transporting and storing (temperature and agitation) can significantly impact on the growth of pathogens and biofilm formation in RCM.

Impedimetric Single Carbon Fiber Electrode for Ultrasensitive Detection of Staphylococcus aureus Pathogen DNAs in Breast Milk by CRISPR Technology

This study introduces a novel biosensing approach for the detection of pathogen DNA in breast milk utilizing single carbon fiber electrodes (SCFE) enhanced with MXene nanomaterial layers. The primary innovation lies in the modification of SCFE with MXenes to increase the electrode's surface area, followed by surface activation for the immobilization of dCas9-sgRNA complexes. This modification aims to leverage the unique properties of MXenes and the selective binding capability of the CRISPR technology for efficient and specific pathogen detection. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were employed to characterize the electrode modifications and the immobilization process, demonstrating the successful enhancement of biosensor performance. This study further optimized the chronoimpedimetric detection method to achieve rapid, sensitive, and selective detection of Staphylococcus aureus (SAu) DNA in breast milk, with a notable detection time of 60 s in real samples. The biosensor demonstrated high selectivity and sensitivity, with a linear detection range between 50 and 6000 fM and a limit of detection (LOD) of 14.5 fM. The reproducibility and stability of the biosensor were also confirmed through multiple tests, showing promising potential for clinical and public health applications.

Recent Advances of Food Hazard Detection Based on Artificial Nanochannel Sensors

Food quality and safety are related to the health and safety of people, and food hazards are important influencing factors affecting food safety. It is strongly necessary to develop food safety rapid detection technology to ensure food safety. As a new detection technology, artificial nanochannel-based electrochemical and other methods have the advantages of being real-time, simple, and sensitive and are widely used in the detection of food hazards. In this paper, we review artificial nanochannel sensors as a new detection technology in food safety for different types of food hazards: biological hazards (bacteria, toxins, viruses) and chemical hazards (heavy metals, organic pollutants, food additives). At the same time, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of artificial nanochannel sensor detection, as well as the restrictions and solutions of detection, and finally look forward to the challenges and development prospects of food safety detection technology based on the limitations of artificial nanochannel detection. We expect to provide a theoretical basis and inspiration for the development of rapid real-time detection technology for food hazards and the production of portable detection equipment in the future.

Analyzing consumer perceptions about food safety by applying the food-related lifestyle approach

Food safety standards remain a major concern for consumers, especially in developing and emerging economies, due to gaps in the capacities of food safety enforcement institutions and limited investments from private sector actors. This study analyzes consumer behavior and food safety-related lifestyles in Kosovo, a post-communist emerging economy. Consumer groups were identified according to their food-related lifestyle using the classical 2-stage segmentation approach of factor analysis as well as cluster analysis. The study findings indicate that almost two-thirds of the surveyed consumers are fairly or very concerned about food safety. The results reveal that highly educated female consumers are more concerned about personal health risks, food safety-related content, and related diseases. This study provides interesting insights for food safety policymakers and the agroindustry on how to promote food safety consumer awareness effectively with targeted communication strategies.

A data-driven approach for prioritising microbial and chemical hazards associated with dairy products using open-source databases

This study presents a data-driven approach for classifying food safety alerts related to chemical and microbial contaminants in dairy products using the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) and the World Health Organization (WHO)'s Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) food contaminants databases. This research aimed to prioritise microbial and chemical hazards based on their presence and severity through exploratory data analysis and to classify the severity of chemical hazards using machine learning (ML) approaches. It identified Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus cereus, Clostridium spp., and Cronobacter sakazakii as the microbial hazards of priority in dairy products. The study also prioritised the top ten chemical hazards based on their presence and severity. These hazards include nitrate, nitrite, ergocornine, 3-MCPD ester, lead, arsenic, ochratoxin A, cadmium, mercury, and aflatoxin (G1, B1, G2, B2, G5 and M1). Using ML techniques, the accuracy rate of classifying food safety alerts as either 'serious' or 'non-serious' was up to 98 %. Additionally, the study identified Reference dose (RfD), substance amount, notification type, product, and substance as the most important features affecting the ML models' performance. These ML models (decision trees, random forests, k-nearest neighbors, linear discriminant analysis, and support vector machines) were also validated on an external dataset of RASFF alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products. They achieved an accuracy of up to 95.1 %. The study's findings demonstrate the models' robustness and ability to classify food safety alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products, even on new data. These results can enhance the development of more effective machine-learning models for classifying food safety alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products, highlighting the importance of developing accurate and efficient classification models for timely intervention.

The Application of Artificial Intelligence and Big Data in the Food Industry

Over the past few decades, the food industry has undergone revolutionary changes due to the impacts of globalization, technological advancements, and ever-evolving consumer demands. Artificial intelligence (AI) and big data have become pivotal in strengthening food safety, production, and marketing. With the continuous evolution of AI technology and big data analytics, the food industry is poised to embrace further changes and developmental opportunities. An increasing number of food enterprises will leverage AI and big data to enhance product quality, meet consumer needs, and propel the industry toward a more intelligent and sustainable future. This review delves into the applications of AI and big data in the food sector, examining their impacts on production, quality, safety, risk management, and consumer insights. Furthermore, the advent of Industry 4.0 applied to the food industry has brought to the fore technologies such as smart agriculture, robotic farming, drones, 3D printing, and digital twins; the food industry also faces challenges in smart production and sustainable development going forward. This review articulates the current state of AI and big data applications in the food industry, analyses the challenges encountered, and discusses viable solutions. Lastly, it outlines the future development trends in the food industry.

Biocide Tolerance and Impact of Sanitizer Concentrations on the Antibiotic Resistance of Bacteria Originating from Cheese

In this study, we determined and identified the bacterial diversity of different types of artisanal and industrially produced cheese. The antibiotic (erythromycin, chloramphenicol, kanamycin, ampicillin, clindamycin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and gentamicin) and biocide (peracetic acid, sodium hypochlorite, and benzalkonium chloride) resistance of clinically relevant bacteria was determined as follows: Staphylococcus aureus, Macrococcus caseolyticus, Bacillus sp., Kocuria varians, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter pasteurii, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella michiganensis, Enterobacter sp., Enterobacter cloacae, Enterobacter sichuanensis, Raoultella ornithinolytica, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella enterica. Also, the effect of the sub-inhibitory concentration of three biocides on antibiotic resistance was determined. The microbiota of evaluated dairy products comprise diverse and heterogeneous groups of bacteria with respect to antibiotic and disinfectant tolerance. The results indicated that resistance was common in the case of ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, and streptomycin. Bacillus sp. SCSSZT2/3, Enterococcus faecalis SRGT/1, E. coli SAT/1, Raoultella ornithinolytica MTT/5, and S. aureus SIJ/2 showed resistance to most antibiotics. The tested bacteria showed sensitivity to peracetic acid and a different level of tolerance to benzalkonium chloride and sodium hypochlorite. The inhibition zone diameter of antibiotics against Enterococcus faecalis SZT/2, S. aureus JS11, E. coli CSKO2, and Kocuria varians GRT/10 was affected only by the sub-inhibitory concentration of peracetic acid.

Staphylococcus aureus Detection in Milk Using a Thickness Shear Mode Acoustic Aptasensor with an Antifouling Probe Linker

Contamination of food by pathogens can pose a serious risk to health. Therefore, monitoring for the presence of pathogens is critical to identify and regulate microbiological contamination of food. In this work, an aptasensor based on a thickness shear mode acoustic method (TSM) with dissipation monitoring was developed to detect and quantify Staphylococcus aureus directly in whole UHT cow's milk. The frequency variation and dissipation data demonstrated the correct immobilization of the components. The analysis of viscoelastic properties suggests that DNA aptamers bind to the surface in a non-dense manner, which favors the binding with bacteria. The aptasensor demonstrated high sensitivity and was able to detect S. aureus in milk with a 33 CFU/mL limit of detection. Analysis was successful in milk due to the sensor's antifouling properties, which is based on 3-dithiothreitol propanoic acid (DTT_COOH) antifouling thiol linker. Compared to bare and modified (dithiothreitol (DTT), 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA), and 1-undecanethiol (UDT)) quartz crystals, the sensitivity of the sensor's antifouling in milk improved by about 82-96%. The excellent sensitivity and ability to detect and quantify S. aureus in whole UHT cow's milk demonstrates that the system is applicable for rapid and efficient analysis of milk safety.

Perfluoroalkyl acid and bisphenol-A exposure via food sources in four First Nation communities in Quebec, Canada

OBJECTIVE

To document perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA) and bisphenol-A (BPA) exposure in four First Nation communities in northern Quebec compared with the Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS Cycle 5 2016-2017) and examine the associations between dietary consumption and chemical exposure.

DESIGN

We used cross-sectional data from the JES-YEH! project conducted in collaboration with four First Nation communities in 2015. A FFQ collected information on diet, and PFAA and BPA were measured in biological samples. We used generalised linear models to test the associations between food intake and chemical biomarkers.

SETTING

Northern Quebec.

PARTICIPANTS

Youth aged 3-19 years (n 198).

RESULTS

Mean perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) levels were significantly higher in JES-YEH! than CHMS, and BPA levels were higher among those aged 12-19 years compared with CHMS. Dairy products were associated with PFNA among Anishinabe and Innu participants (geometric mean ratio 95 % CI: 1·53 (95 % CI 1·03, 2·29) and 1·52 (95 % CI 1·05, 2·20), respectively). PFNA was also associated with ultra-processed foods (1·57 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·31)) among Anishinabe, and with wild fish and berries (1·44 (95 % CI 1·07, 1·94); 1·75 (95 % CI 1·30, 2·36)) among Innu. BPA was associated with cheese (1·72 (95 % CI 1·19, 2·50)) and milk (1·53 (95 % CI 1·02, 2·29)) among Anishinabe, and with desserts (1·71 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·74)), processed meats (1·55 (95 % CI 1·00, 2·38)), wild fish (1·64 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·49)) and wild berries (2·06 (95 % CI 1·37, 3·10)) among Innu.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the importance of better documenting food-processing and packaging methods, particularly for dairy products, and their contribution to endocrine disruptors exposures as well as to promote minimally processed and unpackaged foods to provide healthier food environments for youth in Indigenous communities and beyond.

Determination Methods of the Risk Factors in Food Based on Nanozymes: A Review

Food safety issues caused by foodborne pathogens, chemical pollutants, and heavy metals have aroused widespread concern because they are closely related to human health. Nanozyme-based biosensors have excellent characteristics such as high sensitivity, selectivity, and cost-effectiveness and have been used to detect the risk factors in foods. In this work, the common detection methods for pathogenic microorganisms, toxins, heavy metals, pesticide residues, veterinary drugs, and illegal additives are firstly reviewed. Then, the principles and applications of immunosensors based on various nanozymes are reviewed and explained. Applying nanozymes to the detection of pathogenic bacteria holds great potential for real-time evaluation and detection protocols for food risk factors.

Presence of Certain Foodborne Pathogens in Traditional Balearic Islands' Meat, Pastry, and Cheese Specialties Supported by European Union Quality Schemes, from 2018 to 2021

The cuisine of the Balearic Islands (Spain, southern Europe) has several products of a great tradition, recognized worldwide and covered by European Union quality schemes, such as Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). Among them, the most emblematic products are sobrasada de Mallorca (a type of raw curated pork meat), ensaimada de Mallorca (pastry product), and Mahón-Menorca cheese (cow's milk cheese). During 4 consecutive years (2018-2021), the presence/absence of Escherichia coli β-glucuronidase positive (henceforth as E. coli), Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus in these products has been monitored, as well as the total yeast and mold count in ensaimada de Mallorca. The results of the microbiological analysis showed that sobrasada presented similar microbiological patterns to those of other raw curated meat products (some presence of E. coli and L. monocytogenes). Furthermore, the sobrasada de Mallorca made with white pork tended to be positive in E. coli compared to other sobrasada subtypes. In the case of ensaimada, only a reduced number of cases within filled ensaimadas (with higher moisture content) presented unacceptable mold and yeast counts (>500 colony-forming unit [CFU]/g). Finally, the Mahón-Menorca cheese presented a surprising microbiology pattern: higher E. coli contamination in the pasteurized milk cheese compared to its raw counterpart. This pattern was observed for all the years, being statistically significant in 2020. This study has detected good microbiological status in the three traditional products studied. However, worrisome issues in Good Hygienic Practices have been detected for some companies that produce pasteurized milk Mahón-Menorca cheese under the PDO quality label. The companies involved and even the competent authorities should address these problems to correct this deviation in food security.

Evaluation of (Anti)androgenic Activities of Environmental Xenobiotics in Milk Using a Human Liver Cell Line and Androgen Receptor-Based Promoter-Reporter Assay

The recent reports on milk consumption and its associated risk with hormone related disorders necessitates the evaluation of dairy products for the presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and ensure the safety of consumers. In view of this, we investigated the possible presence of (anti)androgenic contaminants in raw and commercialized milk samples. For this purpose, a novel HepARE-Luc cell line that stably expresses human androgen receptor (AR) and the androgen responsive luciferase reporter gene was generated and used in the present study. Treatment of this cell line with androgens and corresponding antiandrogen (flutamide) stimulated or inhibited expression of reporter luciferase, respectively. Real time polymerase chain reaction and immunostaining results exhibited transcription response and translocation of AR from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in response to androgen. Observations implied that a cell-based xenobiotic screening assay via AR response can be conducted for assessing the (anti)androgenic ligands present in food chain including milk. Therefore, the cell line was further used to screen the (anti)androgenic activity of a total of 40 milk fat samples procured as raw or commercial milk. Some of the raw and commercial milk fat samples distinctly showed antiandrogenic activities. Subsequently, some commonly used environmental chemicals were also evaluated for their (anti)androgenic activities. Initial observations with molecular docking studies of experimental compounds were performed to assess their interaction with AR ligand binding domain. Furthermore, (anti)androgenic activities of these compounds were confirmed by performing luciferase assay using the HepARE-Luc cell line. None of the test compounds showed androgenic activities rather some of them like Bisphenol A (BPA) and rifamycin showed antiandrogenic activities. In conclusion, our results provide a valuable information about the assessment of (anti)androgenic activities present in milk samples. Overall, it is proposed that a robust cell-based CALUX assay can be used to assess the (anti)androgenic activities present in milk which can be attributed to different environmental chemicals present therein.

Safety and Quality of Milk and Milk Products in Senegal—A Review

Historically, local milk production in Senegal has struggled to keep up with the demands of consumers, so there has been a heavy reliance on imported milk and milk products. More recently, efforts have been made to improve local dairy production by establishing large, organized dairies that collect milk from rural production areas and developing small-scale processing units, such as mini dairies. The local dairy value chain in Senegal consists of (1) informal collection systems where farmers commonly deliver milk directly to dairies; (2) traditional and artisanal processing using simple equipment and techniques; and (3) short local marketing and sale circuits. Most West African dairy sectors are dominated by raw, unpasteurized milk or traditional, spontaneously fermented milk products, such as lait caillé in Senegal, sold through small-scale channels without a cold chain, so the risk of food safety hazards may be increased. Microbiological, chemical, and physical hazards have been found in milk and milk products across West Africa. There is a need to educate milk producers, small-scale processors, and vendors on the importance of refrigerating milk immediately after milking as well as maintaining the cold chain until the milk is heat treated and, subsequently, until the milk is marketed to the consumer. However, without assistance, obtaining the equipment necessary for cold storage and processing of milk can be challenging.

Research Advances in the Analysis of Estrogenic Endocrine Disrupting Compounds in Milk and Dairy Products

Milk and dairy products are sources of exposure to estrogenic endocrine disrupting compounds (e-EDCs). Estrogenic disruptors can accumulate in organisms through the food chain and may negatively affect ecosystems and organisms even at low concentrations. Therefore, the analysis of e-EDCs in dairy products is of practical significance. Continuous efforts have been made to establish effective methods to detect e-EDCs, using convenient sample pretreatments and simple steps. This review aims to summarize the recently reported pretreatment methods for estrogenic disruptors, such as solid-phase extraction (SPE) and liquid phase microextraction (LPME), determination methods including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), Raman spectroscopy, and biosensors, to provide a reliable theoretical basis and operational method for e-EDC analysis in the future.

Determination of Optimum TBARS Conditions for Evaluation of Cow and Sheep Milk Oxidative Stability

Having a complex fatty acid profile, milk is the subject of several oxidation processes that are different to those in other food matrices. Considering this, is important to appreciate the degradation status of milk using rapid and simple methods to quantify the main degradation products. The aim of this study was to adapt a simple and rapid method for determination of milk oxidative stability and to quantify malondialdehyde, one of the lipid oxidation products. Four parameters (trichloroacetic acid concentration—TCA, antioxidant type, incubation time, and thiobarbituric acid—TBA concentration) were modified to establish the best experimental sequence. It was concluded that the relevant results were obtained by precipitating milk proteins using 20% TCA; incubating samples for 90 min with 0.8% TBA, without adding antioxidant; and registering absorbance at three different wavelengths (450, 495, and 532 nm). This method was successfully applied to cow and sheep milk samples and the absorbance values obtained provided information about degradation of fatty acids for both milk types. The Pearson correlation showed a positive relationship between the fatty acid profiles of milk samples and the absorbance values that characterized their oxidation pattern during storage.

Advances in multi-omics based quantitative microbial risk assessment in the dairy sector: A semi-systematic review

With the increasing consumption of packaged and ready-to-eat food products, the risk of foodborne illness has drastically increased and so has the dire need for proper management. The conventional Microbial Risk Assessment (MRA) investigations require prior knowledge of process flow, exposure, and hazard assessment throughout the supply chain. These data are often generated using conventional microbiological approaches based either on shelf-life studies or specific spoilage organisms (SSOs), frequently overlooking crucial information such as antimicrobial resistance (AMR), biofilm formation, virulence factors and other physiological variations coupled with bio-chemical characteristics of food matrix. Additionally, the microbial risks in food are diverse and heterogenous, that might be an outcome of growth and activity of multiple microbial populations rather than a single species contamination. The uncertainty on the microbial source, time as well as point of entry into the food supply chain poses a constraint to the efficiency of preventive approaches and conventional MRA. In the last few decades, significant breakthroughs in molecular methods and continuously progressing bioinformatics tools have opened up a new horizon for risk analysis-based approaches in food safety. Real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and kit-based assays provide better accuracy and precision with shorter processing time. Despite these improvements, the effect of complex food matrix on growth environment and recovery of pathogen is a persistent problem for risk assessors. The dairy industry is highly impacted by spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Therefore, this review discusses the evolution and recent advances in MRAmethodologies equipped with predictive interventions and "multi-omics" approach for robust MRA specifically targeting dairy products. It also highlights the limiting gap area and the opportunity for improvement in this field to ensure precision food safety.

Loads of Coliforms and Fecal Coliforms and Characterization of Thermotolerant Escherichia coli in Fresh Raw Milk Cheese

The aim of this study was to assess the hygienic status of raw milk cheese and determine the trends of virulence and antimicrobial resistance in thermotolerant Escherichia coli. Two hundred samples of karish, a popular Egyptian fresh raw milk cheese, were analyzed for coliforms and fecal coliforms using a standard most probable number (MPN) technique. Overall, 85% of samples were unsuitable for consumption, as they exceeded Egyptian standards for coliforms (10 MPN/g), and 65% of samples exhibited coliforms at 44.5 °C. Of 150 recovered thermotolerant strains, 140 (93.3%) were identified as E. coli. Importantly, one Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) strain carrying a striking virulence pattern, stx1−, stx2+, eae−, was detected. Eleven strains (7.8%, 11/140) showed resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. Antibiotic resistance genes included bla_SHV, bla_CTX-M, qnrS, tet(A), and tet(B), which were present in 4.3%, 2.8%, 0.71%, 2.1%, and 0.71% of isolates, respectively. In conclusion, this study indicated that hygienic-sanitary failures occurred throughout the production process of most retail karish cheese. Furthermore, our findings emphasize the need for adopting third-generation cephalosporin-resistant E. coli as an indicator for monitoring antimicrobial resistance in raw milk cheese to identify the potential public health burden associated with its consumption.

Effects of the herbal preparation AyuFertin, used for anestrus overcome, on fatty acids composition of milk in Bulgarian Murrah buffaloes

The herbal protocols, used instead of hormones in buffalo breeding for reproduction optimisation, do not provide information of their effect on the milk quality of treated animals. This research analysed whether the herbal preparation AyuFertin (Indian Herbs Specialities Pvt. Ltd, Saharanpur), applied in postpartum period for recovering the ovary cycling, had a side effect on the milk composition. The experiment was conducted with buffaloes of the Bulgarian Murrah breed at average age of 50 months during May-June 2019, divided into control (n=6) and experimental (n=7) groups. The experimental buffaloes received AyuFertin orally for three consecutive days at a dose of 3 g/100 kg live weight since the 21st postpartum day. The animals without signs of estrus were treated again after 10 days. The milk samples were collected at test-days, before and after treatments. The fatty acid composition of the milk and Ayufertin was evaluated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Quantification of the identified fatty acids in milk was made by the area normalisation method. In general, the fatty acids composition did not differ after the treatment with AyuFertin. Deviation in the amounts of some fatty acids was established. The content of medium-chain fatty acids such as lauric and capric was decreased, while the amount of long-chain acids such as 11-hexadecanoic and stearic was increased in the experimental group. The main active components of AyuFertin - trienoic acids were not transferred into the milk of treated animals. In conclusion, due to the ability of AyuFertin to affect the fatty acids amount in the milk of treated buffaloes, farmers should strictly follow the manufacturer’s recommendation for the dose and duration of AyuFertin treatment to avoid negative effects on milk quality.

Detection and characterization of small-sized microplastics (≥ 5 µm) in milk products

Microplastics (MPs) have gained a high degree of public interest since they are associated with the global release of plastics into the environment. Various studies have confirmed the presence of MPs throughout the food chain. However, information on the ingestion of MPs via the consumption of many commonly consumed foods like dairy products are scarce due to the lack of studies investigating the "contamination" of this food group by MPs. This lack of occurrence data is mainly due to the absence of robust analytical methods capable of reliably quantifying MPs with size < 20 µm in foods. In this work, a new methodology was developed to accurately determine and characterize MPs in milk-based products using micro-Raman (μRaman) technology, entailing combined enzymatic and chemical digestion steps. This is the first time that the presence of relatively low amounts of small-sized MP (≥ 5 µm) have been reported in raw milk collected at farm just after the milking machine and in some processed commercial liquid and powdered cow's milk products.

Non-Invasive Methods for Predicting the Quality of Processed Horticultural Food Products, with Emphasis on Dried Powders, Juices and Oils: A Review

This review covers recent developments in the field of non-invasive techniques for the quality assessment of processed horticultural products over the past decade. The concept of quality and various quality characteristics related to evaluating processed horticultural products are detailed. A brief overview of non-invasive methods, including spectroscopic techniques, nuclear magnetic resonance, and hyperspectral imaging techniques, is presented. This review highlights their application to predict quality attributes of different processed horticultural products (e.g., powders, juices, and oils). A concise summary of their potential commercial application for quality assessment, control, and monitoring of processed agricultural products is provided. Finally, we discuss their limitations and highlight other emerging non-invasive techniques applicable for monitoring and evaluating the quality attributes of processed horticultural products. Our findings suggest that infrared spectroscopy (both near and mid) has been the preferred choice for the non-invasive assessment of processed horticultural products, such as juices, oils, and powders, and can be adapted for on-line quality control. Raman spectroscopy has shown potential in the analysis of powdered products. However, imaging techniques, such as hyperspectral imaging and X-ray computed tomography, require improvement on data acquisition, processing times, and reduction in the cost and size of the devices so that they can be adopted for on-line measurements at processing facilities. Overall, this review suggests that non-invasive techniques have the potential for industrial application and can be used for quality assessment.

Dietary advanced glycation end-products, 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters and glycidyl esters in infant formulas: Occurrence, formulation and processing effects, mitigation strategies

Infant formula contains thermal processing contaminants, such as dietary advanced glycation end-products (dAGEs), glycidyl esters (GEs), 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (MCPDEs). This systematic review aimed to gain insights into the occurrence of these contaminants in different types of infant formula, to understand potential effects of the formulation and processing of infant formulas on these contaminants, as well as into possible mitigation strategies. The occurrence of dAGEs in infant formula depends on the recipes and processing conditions. Hydrolyzed protein formulations promote dAGEs formation in infant formula since peptides are more prone to glycation than intact proteins, which is reflected in high dAGEs concentration in hypoallergenic infant formula. Different carbohydrates in recipes result into different glycation extents of infant formula: maltodextrin containing formulas contained less dAGEs than those with lactose. Concerning mitigation strategies, applying ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment during milk processing leads to less dAGEs formation than using in-bottle sterilization. Although data are limited, evidence showed that encapsulation of raw ingredients or the use of antioxidants or enzymes in recipes is promising. The occurrence of MCPDEs and GEs in infant formula fully depends on the vegetable oils used in the recipe. High levels of these contaminants can be found when relatively high amounts of palm oils or fats are used. The mitigation of MCPDEs and GEs should therefore be performed on fats and oils before their application to infant formula recipes. Data and knowledge gaps identified in this review can be useful to guide future studies.

Microbial Safety of Milk from Vending Machines in the Informal Settlements of Nairobi, Kenya

The microbial quality of milk is an important parameter in determining its safety. Processes such as pasteurization are meant to ensure milk is safe for consumption; however, postpasteurization activities could lead to milk contamination, hence threatening the health of consumers. This study sought to determine the microbial safety of milk obtained from vending machines that were located in Nairobi’s informal settlements of Kibra and Dagoretti North. 37 milk samples were collected both from the storage tanks and vending machines located in the study area using a cross-sectional design and tested for microbial safety. Data were then recorded in datasheets and analyzed using frequencies and t-test with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. Milk samples tested had acceptable levels of pH with a mean of 6.75; however, the pH of samples from the vending machines was lower than that of samples from the storage tanks. Milk samples from the vending machines had high levels of total viable count (Log 4.7028 cfu/mL) with 81% of the samples having counts beyond the acceptable standard. High levels of Staphylococcus aureus (Log 2.5485 cfu/mL) were also detected in 51% of the samples. Escherichia coli was detected in 27% of the milk samples from the vending machines, while Salmonella spp. was not detected. There was a significant increase in the number of total viable counts ( $P\le 0.001$ ), Staphylococcus aureus ( $P\le 0.007$ ), and Escherichia coli ( $P\le 0.015$ ) in milk samples from the vending machines compared to samples from the storage tanks. Study findings show that milk from the vending machines in the selected informal settlements of Nairobi is highly contaminated and can pose a health risk to consumers if taken without any further heat treatment. Milk vending machine handlers should be trained on practices that safeguard the quality and safety of milk. Public awareness should also be created on the general safety of milk from vending machines to protect consumers from potential health risks resulting from drinking contaminated milk.

Microbiological Characteristics and Behavior of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcal Toxin during Making and Maturing Cotija Cheese

Cotija cheese is an artisanal matured Mexican cheese from unpasteurized milk. This work determined the microbiological characteristics and behavior of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and staphylococcal toxin during cheese elaboration and ripening. Sixteen 20-kg cheeses were used, eight inoculated with 6 log CFU/mL of each pathogen, and eight uninoculated, and samples were taken at each stage of the process. In the uninoculated samples, the survival of S. aureus and L. monocytogenes decreased after 30 days of ripening. The average counts of S. aureus in milk, curd, and serum were 7 log MPN /mL, and 8.7 log MPN /g in cheese, decreasing from day 15. Salmonella spp. counts (initial inoculum: 7.2 log MPN /mL) decreased after 24 h, and L. monocytogenes counts (8.7 log MPN/g at 24 h) decreased from day 15 in the cheese. Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were not detected in any sample after 60 days of ripening, unlike S. aureus, which was detected at the end of the study. Lactic acid bacteria counts were 9 log CFU/mL in milk and whey and 7.2 log CFU/g in cheese. Pathogens behavior during the ripening process reduces the health risks by consuming products made with unpasteurized milk when subjected to ripening.

Effect of Intensification Practices, Lambing Period and Environmental Parameters on Animal Health, and Milk Yield and Quality in Dairy Sheep Production Systems on Crete

Due to increasing demand, many traditional, grazing-based Mediterranean sheep production systems have introduced intensified feeding regimes, increased investments in infrastructure and drug use to increase milk yields. However, compared to bovine milk production systems, there is limited knowledge about the impact of these intensification practices on animal welfare and health and on the quality of dairy products. The aim of this study was therefore to quantify the effects of management practices and environmental conditions background on udder health, parasitism and milk quantity and quality in Cretan traditional production systems. Milk yields were higher in semi-intensive production systems while concentrations of several nutritionally desirable compounds such as omega-3 fatty acids were found to be higher in milk from extensive systems. Antibiotic and anthelmintic use was relatively low in both extensive and semi-intensive production systems. There was no substantial difference in parasitic burden, somatic cell counts, and microbiological parameters assessed in milk. Recording of flock health parameters showed that animal health and welfare was high in both extensive and semi-intensively managed flocks, and that overall, the health status of extensively managed ewes was slightly better. In contrast, environmental conditions (temperature and rainfall) had a substantial effect on parasitism and milk quality.

A review of Canadian and international food safety systems: Issues and recommendations for the future

In January 2019, the Safe Food for Canadians Act/Safe Food for Canadians regulations (heretofore identified as SFCR) came into force across Canada and brought a more streamlined process to food safety practice in Canada. Food trade and production processes have evolved rapidly in recent decades, as Canada imports and exports food products; therefore it is critically important to remain aware of the latest advances responding to a range of challenges and opportunities in the food safety value chain. Looking through the optics of the recent SFCR framework, this paper places the spotlight on leading domestic and international research and practices to help strengthen food safety policies of the future. By shedding some light on new research, we also draw attention to international developments that are noteworthy, and place those in context as to how new Canadian food safety policy and regulation can be further advanced. The paper will benchmark Canada through a review study of food safety best practices by juxtaposing (i) stated aspirations with, (ii) actual performance in leading Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) jurisdictions.

Challenges associated with spray drying of lactic acid bacteria: Understanding cell viability loss

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cultures used in food fermentation are often dried to reduce transportation costs and facilitate handling during use. Dried LAB ferments are generally lyophilized to ensure high cell viability. Spray drying has come to the forefront as a promising technique due to its versatility and lower associated energy costs. Adverse conditions during spray drying, such as mechanical stress, dehydration, heating, and oxygen exposure, can lead to low LAB cell viability. This reduced viability has limited spray drying's industrial applications thus far. This review aims to demonstrate the operations and thermodynamic principles that govern spray drying, then correlate them to the damage suffered by LAB cells during the spray-drying process. The particularities of spray drying that might cause LAB cell death are detailed in this review, and the conclusion may enhance future studies on ways to improve cell viability.

Valorized Food Processing By-Products in the EU: Finding the Balance between Safety, Nutrition, and Sustainability

Food businesses in the European Union are preparing for a carbon-neutral future by gradually transitioning to a circular way of operating. Building upon results from the EU REFRESH project, we consider the most valuable food processing by-streams in Europe and discuss potential food safety risks that must be considered while valorizing them for human consumption. These risks are weighed against the nutritional benefits offered by these products and their potential applications in food supply chains. Broadly, we examine whether it is possible for spent grains, cheese whey, fruit and vegetable scraps, meat processing waste, and oilseed cakes and meals to be safe, sustainable, and nutritionally valuable at the same time. The discussion highlights that valorizing by-products obtained from food processing operations is feasible on a large scale only if consumers deem it to be a safe and acceptable practice. Extracting valuable compounds from by-products and using them in the preparation of functional foods could be a way to gain consumer acceptance. Furthermore, we find that current EU food safety legislation does not sufficiently accommodate food processing by-products. A way to bridge this regulatory gap could be through the adoption of private food safety standards that have shown proclivity for sustainability-related issues in food supply chains. Finally, by proposing a decision tree, we show that it is indeed feasible for some food processing by-products to be valorized while ensuring sustainability, food safety, and nutritional relevance.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolated from pasteurized dairy products from Bahia, Brazil

The presence of pathogenic Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in dairy products represents a public health concern because of its ability to produce the toxins Stx1 and Stx2, which cause intestinal diseases. Monitoring the stages of milk production and checking dairy products for contamination are crucial steps to ensure dairy safety. This study aimed to report the occurrence of thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli, and STEC strains in pasteurized dairy products and to evaluate the antibiotic resistance profiles, serotypes, and characterizations of the STEC isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. We obtained a total of 138 pasteurized dairy products from 15 processing plants in Bahia, Brazil, to examine coliforms, E. coli, and STEC strains. We found that 43% of samples (59/138) contained thermotolerant coliforms, and 30% (42/138) did not comply with Brazilian regulations. Overall, 6% (9/138) were positive for E. coli and 4% (5/138) were positive for STEC. We recovered 9 STEC isolates from pasteurized cream (2/9), Minas Padrão cheese (2/9), Minas Frescal cheese (4/9), and ricotta (1/9). All isolates were stx2-positive, and 2 were eae-positive. All isolates were negative for the "big 6" STEC serogroups, belonging instead to serotypes ONT:HNT, ONT:H12, O148:H-, OR:H40, OR:HNT, and O148:HNT. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed 100% genetic similarity among 3 isolates from 2 different samples produced in the same production facility, which may suggest cross-contamination. As well, we found isolates that were 98% similar but in samples produced in different production facilities, suggesting a mutual source of contamination or a circulating strain. Two STEC strains exhibited resistance to streptomycin. Although the isolates presented a low resistance profile and no strain belonged to the "big 6" pathogenic group, the circulation of stx2-positive STEC strains in ready-to-eat products highlights the importance of epidemiological surveillance inside the Brazilian dairy chain.

Recent (2011-2017) foodborne outbreak cases in the Republic of Korea compared to the United States: a review

This study analyzes and compares foodborne disease outbreaks reported in the Republic of Korea (KR) and the United States (US) during 2011-2017. The foodborne outbreaks data in the KR and the US were collected from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety and from the Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks United States, respectively. The average number of outbreaks and illness population were higher in the US than in the KR, but the KR's illness ratio considering population size was 2.4 times higher than that of the US. When the sites of outbreaks compared, the number of illness was the highest at schools in the KR whereas outbreaks at restaurants were more frequent in the US. In the KR, bacterial infections were the primary cause of outbreaks while bacterial and viral infections accounted for the largest share of outbreaks in the US. Specifically, pathogenic E. coli presented a significant risk in the KR whereas Salmonella was the most prevalent in the US. These results indicate that the main microbiological targets for detection and control in the KR should differ from the US, which should be considered for developing food safety related policies.

Occurrence of bisphenol A in the milk chain: A monitoring model for risk assessment at a dairy company

Bisphenol A (BPA) as a chemical hazard may enter the milk chain during primary production at the farm and, successively, during milk processing at a dairy company. To identify the potential pathways that play a role in the occurrence of BPA, a monitoring model for risk assessment based on the identification of the hazards at each stage of milk processing was investigated. Milk samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Quantifiable levels were detected in samples obtained from the raw milk storage tank, pasteurized milk from the storage tank, and packaged milk. The highest BPA contamination levels were detected in raw milk from the storage tank (mean 0.265 µg/L). Despite the fact that dietary exposure levels were below the temporary daily intake, BPA may have adverse effects, particularly for vulnerable population groups. New monitoring programs involving each stage of milk processing should therefore be applied.

Modeling cost-effective monitoring schemes for food safety contaminants: Case study for dioxins in the dairy supply chain

Food safety monitoring is essential for hazard identification in food chain, but its application may be limited due to costly analytical methods and (inefficient) sampling procedures. The objective of this study was to design cost-effective monitoring schemes for food safety contaminants along the food production chain, given restricted monitoring budgets. As a case study, we focused on dioxins in the dairy supply chain with feed mills, dairy farms, dairy trucks and storage silos in dairy plants as possible control points. The cost-effectiveness of monitoring schemes was assessed using a model consisting of a simulation module and an optimization module. In the simulation module, the probability to collect at least one contaminated sample was computed for different sampling strategies (simple random sampling, stratified random sampling and systematic sampling) at each control point. The optimization module maximized the effectiveness of a monitoring scheme to identify the contaminated sample by determining the optimal sampling strategies, the optimal number of incremental samples collected, and the pooling rate (number of collected samples mixed into one aggregated sample) at each control point. The modelling approach was applied to two cases with different types of contamination. Results of these cases showed that, to identify the same contaminated sample, monitoring schemes with systematic sampling were more cost-effective at feed mills and dairy farms. The combination of simulation and optimization methods showed to be useful for developing cost-effective food safety monitoring schemes along the food supply chain.

Consumer Perception of Food Quality and Safety in Western Balkan Countries: Evidence from Albania and Kosovo

Domestic food markets are of significant importance to Kosovar and Albanian companies because access to export markets is under-developed, partly as a result of the gaps in food safety and quality standards. Kosovar and Albanian consumers’ use of food safety attributes and their evaluation of the quality of domestic food versus imported food are the research objectives of this study. The paper is based on a structured consumer survey of 300 Kosovars and 349 Albanians analyzing their perceptions of issues related to food safety and quality, measured through two respective batteries of items using a 5-point Likert scale. We used the t-test to identify differences between populations, correlation analysis and the bootstrapping method. Despite the prevalent problems with food safety, consumers in both countries consider domestic food to be safer as well as of higher quality than imported products. Kosovars are more likely than Albanians to perceive domestic food products to be significantly better than imported products. Female and better educated consumers use information related to food safety more often. Expiry date, domestic and local origin, and brand reputation are the most frequently used safety and quality cues for both samples. International food standards such as ISO or HACCP are less frequently used as quality cues by these consumer groups. It is important to strengthen the institutional framework related to food safety and quality following best practices from EU countries.

Overview of the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Microbial Safety of the Dairy Industry

Climate change is expected to affect many different sectors across the food supply chain. The current review paper presents an overview of the effects of climate change on the microbial safety of the dairy supply chain and suggest potential mitigation strategies to limit the impact. Raw milk, the common raw material of dairy products, is vulnerable to climate change, influenced by changes in average temperature and amount of precipitation. This would induce changes in the microbial profile and heat stress in lactating cows, increasing susceptibility to microbial infection and higher levels of microbial contamination. Moreover, climate change affects the entire dairy supply chain and necessitates adaptation of all the current food safety management programs. In particular, the review of current prerequisite programs might be needed as well as revisiting the current microbial specifications of the receiving dairy products and the introduction of new pretreatments with stringent processing regimes. The effects on microbial changes during distribution and consumer handling also would need to be quantified through the use of predictive models. The development of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) models, considering the whole farm-to-fork chain to evaluate risk mitigation strategies, will be a key step to prioritize actions towards a climate change-resilient dairy industry.

Optimization of Sampling for Monitoring Chemicals in the Food Supply Chain Using a Risk-Based Approach: The Case of Aflatoxins and Dioxins in the Dutch Dairy Chain

Food safety monitoring faces the challenge of tackling multiple chemicals along the various stages of the food supply chain. Our study developed a methodology for optimizing sampling for monitoring multiple chemicals along the dairy supply chain. We used a mixed integer nonlinear programming approach to maximize the performance of the sampling in terms of reducing the risk of the potential disability adjusted life years (DALYs) in the population. Decision variables are the number of samples collected and analyzed at each stage of the food chain (feed mills, dairy farms, milk trucks, and dairy processing plants) for each chemical, given a predefined budget. The model was applied to the case of monitoring for aflatoxin B₁ /M₁ (AFB₁ /M₁ ) and dioxins in a hypothetical Dutch dairy supply chain, and results were calculated for various contamination scenarios defined in terms of contamination fraction and concentrations. Considering various monitoring budgets for both chemicals, monitoring for AFB₁ /M₁ showed to be more effective than for dioxins in most of the considered scenarios, because AFB₁ /M₁ could result into more DALYs than dioxins when both chemicals are in same contamination fraction, and costs for analyzing one AFB₁ /M₁ sample are lower than for one dioxins sample. The results suggest that relatively more resources be spent on monitoring AFB₁ /M₁ when both chemicals' contamination fractions are low; when both contamination fractions are higher, relatively more budget should be addressed to monitoring dioxins.

Farm Differentiation Strategies and Sustainable Regional Development

The paper examines differentiation business strategies in food production in Braničevo-Podunavlje region (Serbia). The research methodology includes survey research focused on the producers engaged in the production of value-added agricultural products, which have a greater potential for differentiation and branding. A range of survey indicators enable farmers and entrepreneurs of differentiated products to emphasize key success factors, detect barriers, and generate business ideas and innovations. Survey research was conducted in the period December 2018–January 2019, among 67 farmers, legal entities, and unincorporated enterprises−producers of high-quality niche food products in Braničevo–Podunavlje region. Results of the research indicated vegetable and fruit processing, beekeeping, and milk processing as sectors of the most promising value-added food products, including those that form the region’s basket of products. The study’s findings should contribute to the development of differentiated business models in the food sector and strengthening their role in smart regional development.

Recent food safety and fraud issues within the dairy supply chain (2015-2019)

Milk and milk products play a vital role in diets around the globe. Due to their nutritional benefits there has been an increase in production and consumption over the past thirty years. For this growth to continue the safety and authenticity of dairy products needs to be maintained which is a huge area of concern. Throughout the process, from farm to processor, different sources of contamination (biological, chemical or physical) may occur either accidently or intentionally. Through online resources (the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) and HorizonScan) safety and fraud data were collected from the past five years relating to milk and milk products. Cheese notifications were most frequently reported for both safety alerts (pathogenic micro-organisms) and fraud incidences (fraudulent documentation). Alongside the significant number of biological contaminations identified, chemical, physical and inadequate controls (in particular; foreign bodies, allergens, industrial contaminants and mycotoxins) were also found. Although the number of incidents were significantly smaller, these contaminants can still pose a significant risk to human health depending on their toxicity and exposure. Grey literature provided a summary of contamination and fraud issues from around the globe and shows its potential to be used alongside database resources for a holistic overview. In ensuring the integrity of milk during ever changing global factors (climate change, competition between food and feed and global pandemics) it is vital that safety and authenticity issues are continually monitored by industry, researchers and governing bodies.

Behavior of Listeria innocua during the manufacturing and pit-ripening of Formaggio di Fossa di Sogliano PDO cheese

Formaggio di Fossa di Sogliano is a traditional Italian Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheese ripened for a minimum of 5 months, with the feature of a ripening of at least 80 to at most 100 days in pits, digged into tuffaceous rocks according to medieval tradition of Italy. In this study, a challenge test using Listeria innocua as a surrogate of Listeria monocytogenes was performed, with the aim of increasing knowledge concerning the impact of the Fossa cheese process, and especially of the traditional ripening process of this PDO, on the behaviour of L. monocytogenes. Pasteurized milk was experimentally inoculated with 4.5 log CFU/mL cocktail by three L. innocua strains, and L. innocua and Mesophilic Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) counts as well as the evolution of temperatures, pH and aw values were monitored throughout the manufacturing and ripening processes. Throughout the ripening in maturation room a constant temperature of 8°C was observed reaching a temperature between 10 and 15.5°C during ripening into pit. In the final products data for LAB concentration, pH and aw values were roughly in accordance with literature, even if some differences were, probably due to variability of artisanal cheese productions. The numbers of L. innocua showed a slight decrease but remained stable until the end of ripening in maturation room, whereas a significant reduction of the microorganism was observed in the final product, at the end of the ripening into the pit. The findings give scientific evidence that the process of this PDO prevented the L. innocua growth, allowing us to speculate a similar behaviour of L. monocytogenes. Based on this study, the recommendation to extend as much as possible the ripening into pit (from 80 to 100 days) was provided to food business operators as a risk mitigation strategy to be implemented.

Zoonotic risks of pathogens from sheep and their milk borne transmission

Sheep were domesticated around 9000 BC in the Middle East, and since then milk from sheep gradually became very popular, not only for drinking but also for making cheeses and other dairy products. Nowadays, these dairy products are also important for people with an allergy to cow milk, and these products are an essential part of the local daily diet in regions of the world that are not suitable for cows and goats. Consumption of raw milk and raw milk products has a zoonotic risk, and with regard to sheep, the main pathogens associated with such dairy products are: Brucella melitensis, Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp., Salmonella spp., Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, tick borne encephalitis virus, and Toxoplasma gondii. Especially, young children, elderly people, pregnant women and immunocompromised (YOPI) persons, and those suffering from disease should be aware of the risk of consuming raw milk and raw milk products. This latter risk can be reduced by proper flock health management, prevention of contamination during milking, adequate milk processing, transport, and refrigerated storage. Only processes equaling pasteurization sufficiently reduce zoonotic risks from milk and milk products, but proper cooling is essential and recontamination must be prevented. Therefore, strict hygiene practices throughout the production process and supply chain especially for raw milk and raw dairy products, should be applied. Small scale production systems pose a greater risk compared to industrialized production systems because of a less protocolized and controlled production process. This manuscript describes zoonotic risks of pathogens from sheep and their milk borne transmission. Additionally, routes of contamination, possibilities for multiplication, and prevention measures thereof are described. We summarize some major human outbreaks caused by consumption of sheep milk and products made thereof, and finally discuss their implications.