Evaluating the structural properties of bioactive‐loaded nanocarriers with modern analytical tools

Characterization Methods for Nanoparticle-Skin Interactions: An Overview

Research progresses have led to the development of different kinds of nanoplatforms to deliver drugs through different biological membranes. Particularly, nanocarriers represent a precious means to treat skin pathologies, due to their capability to solubilize lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs, to control their release, and to promote their permeation through the stratum corneum barrier. A crucial point in the development of nano-delivery systems relies on their characterization, as well as in the assessment of their interaction with tissues, in order to predict their fate under in vivo administration. The size of nanoparticles, their shape, and the type of matrix can influence their biodistribution inside the skin strata and their cellular uptake. In this respect, an overview of some characterization methods employed to investigate nanoparticles intended for topical administration is presented here, namely dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy. In addition, the main fluorescence methods employed to detect the in vitro nanoparticles interaction with skin cell lines, such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting or confocal imaging, are described, considering different examples of applications. Finally, recent studies on the techniques employed to determine the nanoparticle presence in the skin by ex vivo and in vivo models are reported.

Bixin-loaded colloidal nanodelivery systems, techniques and applications

Bixin is the cis-carotenoid from the seed of achiote tree or annatto. It is an approved liposoluble apocarotenoid by FDA as colorant and additive in the food industry. Nonetheless, bixin is unstable in the presence of oxygen, light, high pHs (alkali) and heat; thereby reducing its bioavailability/bioactivity, and also, with a low solubility in water. Some biopolymeric (e.g., nanofibers, nanogels, and nanotubes) and lipid-based nanocarriers (nanoliposomes, niosomes, hexosomes, nanoemulsions, solid-lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers) have been introduced for bixin. Thus, this review focuses on the updated information regarding bixin-loaded nanodelivery platforms. Moreover, it provides a comprehensive review of bioavailability, physicochemical properties, and applications of nanoencapsulated-bixin as an additive, its release rate and safety issues. These findings will bring potential strategies for the usage of nanocarriers in managing bixin defaults to improve its broad application in various industries.

Recent advances in structural characterization of biomacromolecules in foods via small-angle X-ray scattering

Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a method for examining the solution structure, oligomeric state, conformational changes, and flexibility of biomacromolecules at a scale ranging from a few Angstroms to hundreds of nanometers. Wide time scales ranging from real time (milliseconds) to minutes can be also covered by SAXS. With many advantages, SAXS has been extensively used, it is widely used in the structural characterization of biomacromolecules in food science and technology. However, the application of SAXS in charactering the structure of food biomacromolecules has not been reviewed so far. In the current review, the principle, theoretical calculations and modeling programs are summarized, technical advances in the experimental setups and corresponding applications of in situ capabilities: combination of chromatography, time-resolved, temperature, pressure, flow-through are elaborated. Recent applications of SAXS for monitoring structural properties of biomacromolecules in food including protein, carbohydrate and lipid are also highlighted, and limitations and prospects for developing SAXS based on facility upgraded and artificial intelligence to study the structural properties of biomacromolecules are finally discussed. Future research should focus on extending machine time, simplifying SAXS data treatment, optimizing modeling methods in order to achieve an integrated structural biology based on SAXS as a practical tool for investigating the structure-function relationship of biomacromolecules in food industry.

Nanoencapsulation of essential oils from industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) by-products into alfalfa protein nanoparticles

Essential oils of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) by-products (HBEO) were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS); then, encapsulated in alfalfa protein isolate nanoparticles (API-NPs) as a novel nanocarrier. A desirable retention (45.5-63.4%) of HBEO within API-NPs was confirmed. These nanoparticles exhibited a shrunk and globular shape with a size range of 156.9-325.9 nm as indicated by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermal analyses corroborated that HBEO was successfully encapsulated within API NPs in an amorphous form without specific chemical interaction with the carrier matrix. The antioxidant activity of loaded HBEO into API-NPs was higher than free HBEO implying that encapsulation of HBEO in API-NPs was an efficient strategy for improving its stability and functionality. HBEO-loaded API-NPs is a promising candidate to be used in future foods and supplements for novel applications.

Development of an antibiotics delivery system for topical treatment of the neglected tropical disease Buruli ulcer

Skin infection by Mycobacterium ulcerans causes Buruli ulcer (BU) disease, a serious condition that significantly impact patient' health and quality of life and can be very difficult to treat. Treatment of BU is based on daily systemic administration of antibiotics for at least 8 weeks and presents drawbacks associated with the mode and duration of drug administration and potential side effects. Thus, new therapeutic strategies are needed to improve the efficacy and modality of BU therapeutics, resulting in a more convenient and safer antibiotic regimen. Hence, we developed a dual delivery system based on poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) microparticles and a gellan gum (GG) hydrogel for delivery of rifampicin (RIF) and streptomycin (STR), two antibiotics used for BU treatment. RIF was successfully loaded into PHBV microparticles, with an encapsulation efficiency of 43%, that also revealed a mean size of 10 µm, spherical form and rough topography. These microparticles were further embedded in a GG hydrogel containing STR. The resultant hydrogel showed a porous microstructure that conferred a high water retention capability (superior to 2000%) and a controlled release of both antibiotics. Also, biological studies revealed antibacterial activity against M. ulcerans, and a good cytocompatibility in a fibroblast cell line. Thus, the proposed drug delivery system can constitute a potential topical approach for treatment of skin ulcers caused by BU disease.

Application of multi-criteria decision-making for optimizing the formulation of functional cookies containing different types of resistant starches: A physicochemical, organoleptic, in-vitro and in-vivo study

This research aimed to develop a healthy cookie formulation containing different types of resistant starch, through the application of TOPSIS approach, as a potent feature of MCDM methodologies. Physicochemical investigations reveled that a harder, denser and less sticky dough was produced by the addition of both types of RS. The baking of these doughs resulted in the production of crumblier cookies of less spread ratio, lower porous crumb and whiter surface/crumb. Moreover, in-vitro digestibility of the cookies demonstrated that the baking process can adversely reduce the resistance of RS4 to the enzymolysis reactions. This phenomenon was further corroborated by in-vivo studies where the RS4 enriched cookies were less capable in reducing the postprandial blood glucose. TOPSIS, through successful solving of the multiple criteria decision 9 (alternatives) × 15 (evaluated attributes) matrix suggested that the cookie containing 15% RS is the best alternative in all aspects, possessing acceptable physicochemical/organoleptic attributes, and in-vivo/in-vitro dietary fiber.

Seed gum-based delivery systems and their application in encapsulation of bioactive molecules

Now-a-days, the food/pharma realm faces with great challenges for the application of bioactive molecules when applying them in free form due to their instability in vitro/in vivo. For promoting the biological and functional properties of bioactive molecules, efficient delivery systems have played a pivotal role offering a controlled delivery and improved bioavailability/solubility of bioactives. Among different carbohydrate-based delivery systems, seed gum-based vehicles (SGVs) have shown great promise, facilitating the delivery of a high concentration of bioactive at the site of action, a controlled payload release, and less bioactive loss. SGVs are potent structures to promote the bioavailability, beneficial properties, and in vitro/in vivo stability of bioactive components. Here, we offer a comprehensive overview of seed gum-based nano- and microdevices as delivery systems for bioactive molecules. We have a focus on structural/functional attributes and health-promoting benefits of seed gums, but also strategies involving modification of these biopolymers are included. Diverse SGVs (nano/microparticles, functional films, hydrogels/nanogels, particles for Pickering nanoemulsions, multilayer carriers, emulsions, and complexes/conjugates) are reviewed and important parameters for bioactive delivery are highlighted (e.g. bioactive-loading capacity, control of bioactive release, (bio)stability, and so on). Future challenges for these biopolymer-based carriers have also been discussed. HighlightsSeed gum-based polymers are promising materials to design different bioactive delivery systems.Seed gum-based delivery systems are particles, fibers, complexes, conjugates, hydrogels, etc.Seed gum-based vehicles are potent structures to promote the bioavailability, beneficial properties, and in vitro/in vivo stability of bioactive components.

Protein-polysaccharide interactions for the fabrication of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers: Chemical conjugates and physical complexes

As unique biopolymeric architectures, covalently and electrostatically protein-polysaccharide (PRO-POL) systems can be utilized for bioactive delivery by virtue of their featured structures and unique physicochemical attributes. PRO-POL systems (i. e, microscopic /nano-dimensional multipolymer particles, molecularly conjugated vehicles, hydrogels/nanogels/oleogels/emulgels, biofunctional films, multilayer emulsion-based delivery systems, particles for Pickering emulsions, and multilayer coated liposomal nanocarriers) possess a number of outstanding attributes, like biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bioavailability with low toxicity that qualify them as powerful agents for the delivery of different bioactive ingredients. To take benefits from these systems, an in-depth understanding of the chemical conjugates and physical complexes of the PRO-POL systems is crucial. In this review, we offer a comprehensive study concerning the unique properties of covalently/electrostatically PRO-POL systems and introduce emerging platforms to fabricate relevant nanocarriers for encapsulation of bioactive components along with a subsequent sustained/controlled release.

Protein complex nanoparticles reinforced with industrial hemp essential oil: Characterization and application for shelf-life extension of Rainbow trout fillets

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Industrial hemp essential oil was successfully reinforced in formed nanoparticles.

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Coating controlled the microbial growth of fish during storage.

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The coated fishes retarded the increase of oxidation during storage.

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Coating led to an extension in the shelf life of Rainbow trout fillets.

Essential oil of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) (IHEO) was reinforced in complexation of whey protein nanofibrils and mung bean protein nanoparticles (WPNF-MBP NPs) as a novel nano-carrier. A desirable retention rate range of 50.9–90.4% was confirmed for IHEO reinforced in WPNF-MBP NPs. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy revealed that IHEO was successfully loaded within WPNF-MBP NPs without specific chemical interaction with the carrier matrix. The results indicated that incorporation of IHEO-reinforced WPNF-MBP NPs into active material coatings having acceptable inhibition activity against total viable and psychrotrophic bacteria. The coated fishes also retarded the increase of PV (peroxide value), TBA (thiobarbituric acid) and TVB-N (total volatile basic nitrogen) values during storage. The IHEO-reinforced WPNF-MBP NPs coating led to an extension in the shelf life of Rainbow trout fillets within 8–14 days of storage. Accordingly, IHEO-reinforced WPNF-MBP NPs can be suggested as a natural preservative for coating fishes.

Anticancer nano-delivery systems based on bovine serum albumin nanoparticles: A critical review

Among the health-promotional protein-based vehicles, bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA NPs) are particularly interesting. Meeting requirements e. g., non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and high drug-binding capacity, has introduced BSA NPs as a promising candidate for efficient anti-cancer drug delivery and its application is now a rapidly-growing strategy to promote cancer therapy. Nevertheless, the leverage of such carriers requires an in-depth understanding of structural/physicochemical features of the BSA molecule and its derived nanovehicles, together with the utilized nano-formulation approaches, effective variables in delivery mechanism, specific shortfalls, and recent nanoencapsulation progresses. The current review highlights the novel advances in the application of BSA NPs to engineer drug vehicles for delivering anti-cancer agents. The factors influencing the efficiency of the therapeutics in such nano-delivery systems, alongside their advantaged and limitations are also discussed.

The role of emulsification strategy on the electrospinning of β-carotene-loaded emulsions stabilized by gum Arabic and whey protein isolate

This work was aimed to systematically assess the effect of diverse emulsification strategies, i.e., layer-by-layer (LbL), directly mixing (DM), and heteroaggregation (HA) assemblies on electrospinnability of emulsions stabilized by gum Arabic (GA)-whey protein isolate (WPI) blend and their subsequence potential in β-carotene (BC) encapsulation. The designed BC emulsions were characterized in terms of zeta-potential, droplet size, and rheological properties. According to the results, LbL-formulated emulsions possessed the highest zeta-potential; however, HA-produced ones appeared to be more viscous among all emulsions. Properties of electrospun nanofibers varied considerably relying on either the emulsification strategy or the oil phase volume fraction as confirmed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and fourier transform infrared specroscopy (FTIR). It was found that the resulting nanofibers produced by LbL and HA emulsification guaranteed higher BC encapsulation efficiency (>90%), in comparison to that of DM-engineered samples offering a lower efficiency of ∼71 %. The storage stability of BC emulsions stabilized with WPI-GA blend was in the order of LbL > HA > DM emulsions. Most importantly, the application of LbL assembly exhibited the most thermally/physicochemically stable carotenoid-comprising nanofibers among all studied mixing techniques. These results offer useful information for applications of different emulsification strategies for fabricating BC-loaded nanofibers via emulsion electrospining technique.

Dual-modified starch nanospheres encapsulated with curcumin by self-assembly: Structure, physicochemical properties and anti-inflammatory activity

Pullulanase debranching and subsequent hydroxypropylation were applied to prepare a series of dual-modified starches (Hydroxypropylated debranched starch, HPDS) with different degrees of hydroxypropyl substitution. Their structural and physicochemical properties varied with the degree of hydroxypropyl substitution, and all HPDS exhibited the ability to self-assemble into well-shaped nanospheres (100-150 nm, PDI < 0.2). These HPDS nanospheres were attempted to encapsulate curcumin with the aim of improving the bioavailability, solubility and stability of curcumin. Their structural characteristics, thermal stability, iodine staining, morphology, safety, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro gastrointestinal release behavior, and anti-inflammatory activity were evaluated. The results showed that curcumin could be effectively encapsulated into the HPDS nanospheres, and the encapsulation efficiency, water solubility and physical stability were positively correlated with the degree of hydroxypropyl substitution. After encapsulation, the water solubility and physical stability of curcumin could be increased up to 226-fold and 6-fold, respectively. The HPDS nanospheres also exhibited good safety (including hemolysis and cytotoxicity) and sustainable release of curcumin. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity showed that the activity of curcumin-encapsulated HPDS was enhanced by 170% compared to unencapsulated curcumin. These suggest that HPDS nanospheres encapsulation may be a more suitable option for the development of functional foods containing bioactive compounds.

Electrospraying as a novel process for the synthesis of particles/nanoparticles loaded with poorly water-soluble bioactive molecules

Hydrophobicity and low aqueous-solubility of different drugs/nutraceuticals remain a persistent challenge for their development and clinical/food applications. A range of nanotechnology strategies have been implemented to address this issue, and amongst which a particular emphasis has been made on those that afford an improved biological performance and tunable release kinetic of bioactives through a one-step process. More recently, the technique of electrospraying (or electrohydrodynamic atomization) has attained notable impulse in virtue of its potential to tune attributes of nano/micro-structured particles (e.g., porosity, particle size, etc.), rendering a near zero-order release kinetics, diminished burst release manner, as well as its simplicity, reproducibility, and applicability to a broad spectrum of hydrophobic and poorly water-soluble bioactives. Controlled morphology or monodispersity of designed particles could be properly obtained via electrospraying, with a high encapsulation efficiency and without unfavorable denaturation of thermosensitive bioactives upon encapsulation. This paper overviews the recent technological advances in electrospraying for the encapsulation of low queues-soluble bioactive agents. State-of-the-art, advantages, applications, and challenges for its implementation in pharmaceutical/food researches are also discussed.