Legume proteins are smart carriers to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds and probiotic bacteria: A review

Development and characterization of microencapsulated Pichia kluyveri CCMA 0615 with probiotic properties and its application in fermented beverages

The study aimed to develop innovative microencapsulated formulations of strains with probiotic attributes, Pichia kluyveri CCMA 0615 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMA 0732. The yeasts (8 log CFU/mL) were microencapsulated by spray drying technique using whey powder (WP - 15 %, 20 %, and 30 %) and sodium alginate (ALG - 1 %). The microcapsules and cell viability were characterized during two months of storage (4 °C and 25 °C). The selected formulations were applied to functional beverage fermentation, and viability and survival in the simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were performed. The viability of yeasts microencapsulated by the spray drying method was shown to be dependent on the strain and encapsulating matrix used, ranging from 84 to 99 %. P. kluyveri required refrigeration when storing microcapsules. In functional beverage fermentation, microencapsulated yeast maintained the same fermentative profile with carbohydrate consumption, production of lactic acid (0.30 to 1.10 g/L) and alcohol (0.2 to 1.61 g/L), and greater viability during storage. Finally, the microencapsulation of P. kluyveri with 15 % WP + 1 % ALG maintained high viability under GIT conditions, whether exposed independently (>84 %) or incorporated into a food matrix (>94 %). The study demonstrated that this innovative microencapsulation of probiotic yeasts increases their viability, improves biotechnological application, and facilitates efficient delivery of probiotics to the host.

Recent advances in phytase thermostability engineering towards potential application in the food and feed sectors

This review comprehensively examines the advancements in engineering thermostable phytase through genetic modification and immobilization techniques, focusing on developments from the last seven years. Genetic modifications, especially protein engineering, have enhanced enzyme's thermostability and functionality. Immobilization on various supports has further increased thermostability, with 50-60 % activity retention at higher temperature (more than 50 °C). In the food industry, phytase is used in flour processing and bread making, reducing phytate content by around 70 %, thereby improving nutritional value and mineral bioavailability. In the feed industry, it serves as a poultry feed additive, breaking down phytates to enhance nutrient availability and feed efficiency. The enzyme's robustness at high temperatures makes it valuable in feed processing. The integration of microbial production of phytase with genetically engineered strains followed by carrier free immobilization represents a synergistic approach to fortify enzyme structure and improve thermal stability. These advancement in the development of phytase enzyme capable of withstanding high temperatures, thereby pivotal for industrial utilization.

Improvement of cereal- and legume-derived protein quality with selenium and sulfur for plant food production

Selenium (Se) is essential for human and animal health and nutritional status. As humans cannot produce Se, it must be obtained from the diet. Adequate Se supplementation improves innate immunity, increases antioxidant capacity and helps prevent various disorders. Sulfur (S) is an indispensable nutrient that affects plant growth, performance and yield. Cereals and legumes are global staple foods, and their proteins are considered sustainable plant-based meat alternatives, which are increasingly popular. Owing to their physicochemical similarities, the crosstalk between Se and S influences cereal and grain-legume derived proteins. Modifications induced by Se and S might improve the protein quality of harvested cereal and legume grains. This timely review not only identifies the knowledge gaps in this research area focusing on Se and S enrichment in cereals and legumes but also emphasizes the potential of this unexplored area for new applications. S enrichment resulted in better quality properties in the bread of wheat flour and stimulated the expression of S-rich globulins and albumins in legumes. Se supplementation enhanced the emulsifying capacity of legumes (e.g. chickpeas). The improvement of protein fractions in cereal and legume grains has the potential to revolutionize protein processing to offer new alternatives to produce an array of S- and Se-enriched cereal and legume products. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Processing to improve the sustainability of chickpea as a functional food ingredient

Chickpea is a field crop that is playing an emerging role in the provision of healthy and sustainable plant-based value-added ingredients for the food and nutraceutical industries. This article reviews the characteristics of chickpea (composition, health properties, and techno-functionality) and chickpea grain that influence their use as whole foods or ingredients in formulated food. It covers the exploitation of traditional and emerging processes for the conversion of chickpea into value-added differentiated food ingredients. The influence of processing on the composition, health-promoting properties, and techno-functionality of chickpea is discussed. Opportunities to tailor chickpea ingredients to facilitate their incorporation in traditional food applications and in the expanding plant-based meat alternative and dairy alternative markets are highlighted. The review includes an assessment of the possible uses of by-products of chickpea processing. Recommendations are provided for future research to build a sustainable industry using chickpea as a value-added ingredient. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Synthesis, characterization and application of microbial pigments in foods as natural colors

Colorants have played a crucial role in various applications, particularly in food processing, with natural sources such as mineral ores, plants, insects, and animals being commonly used. However, the nineteenth century saw the development of synthetic dyes, which replaced these natural colorants. In recent years, there has been a growing demand for natural products, driving an increased interest in natural colorants. Microbial pigments have emerged as promising sources of natural pigments due to their numerous health benefits. They can be produced in large quantities rapidly and from more affordable substrates, making them economically attractive. This review focuses on the current advancements in the low-cost synthesis of microbial pigments, exploring their biological activities and commercial applications. Microbial pigments offer a sustainable and economically viable alternative to natural and synthetic colorants, meeting the growing demand for natural products. These pigments are relatively nontoxic and exhibit significant health benefits, making them suitable for a wide range of applications. As interest in natural products continues to rise, microbial pigments hold great potential in shaping the future of colorant production across various sectors.

Microcapsule Preparation and Properties of Flavonoid Extract from Immature Citrus reticulata 'Chachiensis' Peel

Citrus reticulata 'Chachiensis' is a citrus cultivar in the Rutaceae family, and its peel is commonly utilized as a raw material for Guangchenpi. This study used flavonoid extract from the peel of immature Citrus reticulata 'Chachiensis' (CCE) as the raw material to investigate the encapsulation ability of different wall materials (plant-based proteins, including soybean protein isolation (SPI), pea protein (PP), and zein; carbohydrates, including maltodextrin (MD), Momordica charantia polysaccharide (MCP), and gum acacia (GA); and composite wall materials of both types) on CCE. The wall material with the highest encapsulation rate was selected for the preparation of CCE microcapsules. Furthermore, the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant capacity, bioavailability, and storage stability of the CCE microcapsules were explored. The results indicated that among all wall materials, the composite wall material PPMD had the highest encapsulation rate, which was 84.44 ± 0.34%. After encapsulation, the microcapsules tended to have a yellow color and exhibited characteristics such as system stability, low moisture content, and low hygroscopicity. In vitro antioxidant assays revealed that the encapsulation of CCE significantly increased the scavenging rates of DPPH and ABTS free radicals. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion experiments indicated that the release rate of PPMD-CCE in intestinal fluid was significantly greater than that of free CCE, ultimately reaching 85.89 ± 1.53%. Storage experiments demonstrated that after 45 days under various temperature and light conditions, the retention rate of CCE in the microcapsules was significantly greater than that of free CCE. The above findings provide new possibilities for the application of PP and plant proteins and lay a foundation for the future industrial application of CCE.

Effect of dual modifications with ultrasonication and succinylation on Cicer arietinum protein-iron complexes: Characterization, digestibility, in-vitro cellular mineral uptake and preparation of fortified smoothie

The research aimed to evaluate the effect of ultrasonication and succinylation on the functional, iron binding, physiochemical, and cellular mineral uptake efficacy of chickpea protein concentrate. Succinylation resulted in significant improvements in the water-holding capacity (WHC) (25.47 %), oil-holding capacity (OHC) (31.38 %), and solubility (5.80 %) of the chickpea protein-iron complex. Mineral bioavailability significantly increased by 4.41 %, and there was a significant increase in cellular mineral uptake (64.64 %), retention (36.68 %), and transport (27.96 %). The ferritin content of the succinylated chickpea protein-iron complex showed a substantial increase of 66.31%. Furthermore, the dual modification approach combining ultrasonication and succinylation reduced the particle size of the protein-iron complex with a substantial reduction of 83.25 %. It also resulted in a significant enhancement of 51.5 % in the SH (sulfhydryl) content and 48.92 % in the surface hydrophobicity. Mineral bioavailability and cellular mineral uptake, retention, and transport were further enhanced through dual modification. In terms of application, the addition of single and dual-modified chickpea protein-iron complex to a fruit-based smoothie demonstrated positive acceptance in sensory attributes. Overall, the combined approach of succinylation and ultrasonication to the chickpea protein-iron complex shows a promising strategy for enhancing the physiochemical and techno-functional characteristics, cellular mineral uptake, and the development of vegan food products.

Unlocking the Nutraceutical Potential of Legumes and Their By-Products: Paving the Way for the Circular Economy in the Agri-Food Industry

Legumes, including beans, peas, chickpeas, and lentils, are cultivated worldwide and serve as important components of a balanced and nutritious diet. Each legume variety contains unique levels of protein, starch, fiber, lipids, minerals, and vitamins, with potential applications in various industries. By-products such as hulls, rich in bioactive compounds, offer promise for value-added utilization and health-focused product development. Various extraction methods are employed to enhance protein extraction rates from legume by-products, finding applications in various foods such as meat analogs, breads, and desserts. Moreover, essential fatty acids, carotenoids, tocols, and polyphenols are abundant in several residual fractions from legumes. These bioactive classes are linked to reduced incidence of cardiovascular diseases, chronic inflammation, some cancers, obesity, and type 2 diabetes, among other relevant health conditions. The present contribution provides a comprehensive review of the nutritional and bioactive composition of major legumes and their by-products. Additionally, the bioaccessibility and bioavailability aspects of legume consumption, as well as in vitro and in vivo evidence of their health effects are addressed.

Self-assembled poloxamer-legumin/vicilin nanoparticles for the nanoencapsulation and controlled release of folic acid

Plant-based food proteins are a promising choice for the preparation of nanoparticles (NPs) due to their high digestibility, low cost, and ability to interact with various compounds and nutrients. Moreover, nanoencapsulation offers a potential solution for protecting nutrients during processing and enhancing their bioavailability. This study aimed to develop and evaluate nanoparticles (NPs) based on legumin/vicilin (LV) proteins extracted from fava beans, with the goal of encapsulating and delivering a model nutraceutical compound, folic acid (FA). Specifically, NPs were self-assembled from LV proteins extracted from commercially available frozen fava beans using a pH-coacervation method with poloxamer 188 (P188) and chemically cross-linked with glutaraldehyde. Microscopy and spectroscopy studies were carried out on the empty and FA-loaded NPs in order to evaluate the particle morphology, size, size distribution, composition, mechanism of formation, impact of FA loading and release behavior. In vitro studies with Caco-2 cells also confirmed that the empty and FA-loaded nanoparticles were non-toxic. Thus, the LV-NPs are good candidates as food additives for the delivery and stabilization of nutrients as well as in drug delivery for the controlled release of therapeutics.

Advances in protein-based microcapsules and their applications: A review

Due to their excellent emulsification, biocompatibility, and biological activity, proteins are widely used as microcapsule wall materials for encapsulating drugs, natural bioactive substances, essential oils, probiotics, etc. In this review, we summarize the protein-based microcapsules, discussing the types of proteins utilized in microcapsule wall materials, the preparation process, and the main factors that influence their properties. Additionally, we conclude with examples of the vital role of protein-based microcapsules in advancing the food industry from primary processing to deep processing and their potential applications in the biomedical, chemical, and textile industries. However, the low stability and controllability of protein wall materials lead to degraded performance and quality of microcapsules. Protein complexes with polysaccharides or modifications to proteins are often used to improve the thermal instability, pH sensitivity, encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant capacity of microcapsules. In addition, factors such as wall material composition, wall material ratio, the ratio of core to wall material, pH, and preparation method all play critical roles in the preparation and performance of microcapsules. The application area and scope of protein-based microcapsules can be further expanded by optimizing the preparation process and studying the microcapsule release mechanism and control strategy.

Enhance the resistance of probiotics by microencapsulation and biofilm construction based on rhamnogalacturonan I rich pectin

Microcapsules were always used as functional material carriers for targeted delivery and meanwhile offering protection. However, microcapsule wall materials with specific properties were required, which makes the choice of wall material a key factor. In our previous study, a highly branched rhamnogalacturonan I rich (RG-I-rich) pectin was extracted from citrus canning processing water, which showed good gelling properties and binding ability, indicating it could be a potential microcapsule wall material. In the present study, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GDMCC 1.140 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus were encapsulated by RG-I-rich pectin with embedding efficiencies of about 65 %. The environmental tolerance effect was evaluated under four different environmental stresses. Positive protection results were obtained under all four conditions, especially under H2O2 stress, the survival rate of probiotics embedded in microcapsules was about double that of free probiotics. The storage test showed that the total plate count of L. rhamnosus encapsulated in RG-I-rich pectin microcapsules could still reach 6.38 Log (CFU/mL) at 25 °C for 45 days. Moreover, probiotics embedded in microcapsules with additional incubation to form a biofilm layer inside could further improve the probiotics' activities significantly in the above experiments. In conclusion, RG-I-rich pectin may be a good microcapsule wall material for probiotics protection.

Recent Advances in Dietary Sources, Health Benefits, Emerging Encapsulation Methods, Food Fortification, and New Sensor-Based Monitoring of Vitamin B12: A Critical Review

In this overview, the latest achievements in dietary origins, absorption mechanism, bioavailability assay, health advantages, cutting-edge encapsulation techniques, fortification approaches, and innovative highly sensitive sensor-based detection methods of vitamin B12 (VB12) were addressed. The cobalt-centered vitamin B is mainly found in animal products, posing challenges for strict vegetarians and vegans. Its bioavailability is highly influenced by intrinsic factor, absorption in the ileum, and liver reabsorption. VB12 mainly contributes to blood cell synthesis, cognitive function, and cardiovascular health, and potentially reduces anemia and optic neuropathy. Microencapsulation techniques improve the stability and controlled release of VB12. Co-microencapsulation of VB12 with other vitamins and bioactive compounds enhances bioavailability and controlled release, providing versatile initiatives for improving bio-functionality. Nanotechnology, including nanovesicles, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles can enhance the delivery, stability, and bioavailability of VB12 in diverse applications, ranging from antimicrobial agents to skincare and oral insulin delivery. Staple food fortification with encapsulated and free VB12 emerges as a prominent strategy to combat deficiency and promote nutritional value. Biosensing technologies, such as electrochemical and optical biosensors, offer rapid, portable, and sensitive VB12 assessment. Carbon dot-based fluorescent nanosensors, nanocluster-based fluorescent probes, and electrochemical sensors show promise for precise detection, especially in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.

Electrospinning Microencapsulation of Lactobacillus fermentum K73 Using Gelatin as the Main Component of a Food-Grade Matrix

This work aimed to establish the conditions that improve the viability of Lactobacillus fermentum K73 during and after the electrospinning process. A mixture of experimental designs were performed to select the formulation (gelatin and bacterial culture) that improves the probiotic viability after blending and under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. A Box-Behnken design was performed to improve the encapsulation yield and survival during the electrospinning process. For the Box-Behnken design, the factors were soy lecithin and bacteria culture concentration at the blend and collector distance for electrospinning. It was hypothesized that soy lecithin improved the electrospinnability, acting as a surfactant in the mixture and allowing lower voltage to be used during the process. The selected volume ratio of the gelatin (25%)/bacterial culture mixture was 0.66/0.34. The physicochemical parameters of the selected blend were in the recommended range for electrospinning. The conditions that improved the encapsulation yield and survival during electrospinning were 200 g/L of bacterial culture, 2.5% (w/v) soy lecithin, and 7 cm collector distance. The experimental encapsulation yield and survival was 80.7%, with an experimental error of 7.2%. SEM micrographs showed the formation of fibers with gelatin/bacterial culture beads. Encapsulation improved the viability of the probiotic under simulated gastrointestinal conditions compared to free cells.

In Vitro and In Vivo Characterisation of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LAB12 in Pea Protein-Alginate Microcapsules

The susceptibility of probiotics to high temperature and low pH remains a major challenge in food industries. Numerous commercially available probiotic products were reportedly presented with lower probiotic viability than claimed. To confer health benefits to the host, it is essential that probiotic strain remains viable at optimal amount during food processing procedures, storage and passage through the gastrointestinal tract. This study addressed these issues by immobilising Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LAB12 isolated from tempeh (fermented soybean) in a polymeric matrix made up of alginate (Alg, 0.5% w/v) and denatured pea protein isolate (PPi, 1-10% w/v) using the emulsion/acidification technique. Alg supplemented with 10% PPi (Alg-PPi10) appeared to be optimally small (< 350 µm), substantiated by the improved surface smoothness and uniform dispersion of probiotics in the Alg-PPi core. The findings indicated that microencapsulation enhanced thermal stability of L. plantarum LAB12. The microencapsulated L. plantarum LAB12 remained highly viable (80%) despite exposure to 100 °C for 5 min. The microencapsulated cell number during storage at 4 and 25 °C for 8 weeks was greater than 7 log CFU g-1. L. plantarum LAB12 encapsulated in Alg-PPi10 exhibited high viability (96%) in simulated gastric juice (at pH 1.8 for 120 min) and facilitated maximum release of probiotics (> 9 log CFU g-1) in simulated intestinal fluid (at pH 6.8 for 240 min). Whilst retaining their intrinsic cholesterol lowering effect, microencapsulation conferred additional advantages to L. plantarum LAB12 in terms of lowering serum triglyceride and increasing HDL cholesterol in zebrafish fed with high-cholesterol diet (HCD). Overall, our findings strongly imply the potential use of Alg-PPi10 as an effective medium that confers thermal protection and facilitates pH-sensitive release of cholesterol-reducing L. plantarum LAB12. This will allow the diverse applications L. plantarum LAB12 across health, food and agro-feed industries amongst others.

A review on chitosan and alginate-based microcapsules: Mechanism and applications in drug delivery systems

Natural polymers, like chitosan and alginate have potential of appearance, as well as the changes and handling necessary to make it acceptable vehicle for the controlled release of medicines and biomolecules. Microcapsules are characterized as micrometer-sized particulate that can be employed to store chemicals within them. In the present review, we have discussed various advantages, components of microcapsules, release mechanisms, preparation methods, and their applications in drug delivery systems. The preparation methods exhibited strong encapsulation effectiveness and may be used in a wide range of pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. The major advantages of using the microencapsulation technique are, sustained and controlled delivery of drugs, drug targeting, improvement of shelf life, stabilization, immobilization of enzymes and microorganisms. As new biomaterials are developed for the body, they are better suited to the development of pharmaceutical systems than traditional pharmaceuticals because they are more reliable, biocompatible, biodegradable, and nontoxic. Furthermore, the designed microcapsules had been capable of shielding the essential components from hostile environments. More advanced techniques could be developed in the future to facilitate the formulation and applications of microcapsules and working with the pharmaceutical and medical industries.

Milk fat globule membrane: composition, production and its potential as encapsulant for bioactives and probiotics

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a complex trilayer structure present in mammalian milk and is mainly composed of phospholipids and proteins (>90%). Many studies revealed MFGM has positive effects on the immune system, brain development, and cognitive function of infants. Probiotics are live microorganisms that have been found to improve mental health and insulin sensitivity, regulate immunity, and prevent allergies. Probiotics are unstable and prone to degradation by environmental, processing, and storage conditions. In this review, the processes used for encapsulation of probiotics particularly the potential of MFGM and its constituents as encapsulating materials for probiotics are described. This study analyzes the importance of MFGM in encapsulating bioactive substances and emphasizes the interaction with probiotics and the gut as well as its resistance to adverse environmental factors in the digestive system when used as a probiotic embedding material. MFGM can enhance the gastric acid resistance and bile resistance of probiotics, mainly manifested in the survival rate of probiotics. Due to the role of digestion, MFGM-coated probiotics can be released in the intestine, and due to the biocompatibility of the membrane, it can promote the binding of probiotics to intestinal epithelial cells, and promote the colonization of some probiotics in the intestine.

Nanocoating of lactic acid bacteria: properties, protection mechanisms, and future trends

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a type of probiotic that may benefit intestinal health. Recent advances in nanoencapsulation provide an effective strategy to protect them from harsh conditions via surface functionalization coating techniques. Herein, the categories and features of applicable encapsulation methods are compared to highlight the significant role of nanoencapsulation. Commonly used food-grade biopolymers (polysaccharides and protein) and nanomaterials (nanocellulose and starch nanoparticles) are summarized along with their characteristics and advances to demonstrate enhanced combination effects in LAB co-encapsulation. Nanocoating for LAB provides an integrity dense or smooth layer attributed to the cross-linking and assembly of the protectant. The synergism of multiple chemical forces allows for the formation of subtle coatings, including electrostatic attractions, hydrophobic interactions, π-π, and metallic bonds. Multilayer shells have stable physical transition properties that could increase the space between the probiotic cells and the outer environment, thus delaying the microcapsules burst time in the gut. Probiotic delivery stability can be promoted by enhancing the thickness of the encapsulated layer and nanoparticle binding. Maintenance of benefits and minimization of nanotoxicity are desirable, and green synthesized nanoparticles are emerging. Future trends include optimized formulation, especially using biocompatible materials, protein or plant-based materials, and material modification.

Emerging plant proteins as nanocarriers of bioactive compounds

The high prevalence of chronic illnesses, including cancer, diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases has become a growing concern for modern society. Recently, various bioactive compounds (bioactives) are shown to have a diversity of health-beneficial impacts on a wide range of disorders. But the application of these bioactives in food and pharmaceutical formulations is limited due to their poor water solubility and low bioaccessibility/bioavailability. Plant proteins are green alternatives for designing biopolymeric nanoparticles as appropriate nanocarriers thanks to their amphiphilic nature compatible with many bioactives and unique functional properties. Recently, emerging plant proteins (EPPs) are employed as nanocarriers for protection and targeted delivery of bioactives and also improving their stability and shelf-life. EPPs could enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of bioactives by different types of delivery systems. In addition, the use of EPPs in combination with other biopolymers like polysaccharides was found to make a favorable wall material for food bioactives. This review article covers the various sources and importance of EPPs along with different encapsulation techniques of bioactives. Characterization of EPPs for encapsulation is also investigated. Furthermore, the focus is on the application of EPPs as nanocarriers for food bioactives.

Physicochemical and techno-functional properties of mixtures of Michigan bean protein concentrate (Phaseolus vulgaris L): maltodextrin

The objective of this research was to evaluate some physicochemical and techno-functional properties of mixtures of Michigan bean protein concentrate: maltodextrin. The beans were cleaned and hulled, then dried (55 °C/1 h), ground to obtain the flour, then the concentrate was obtained by the isoelectric precipitation technique. The mixtures were established based on preliminary tests with a maximum concentration of 60% bean protein concentrate, 0:100, 9:91, 30:70, 51:49, 60:40 w/w, bean protein concentrate:maltodextrin, respectively. The chemical composition proximal to the flour and concentrate was determined, while the pH color, apparent density and the techno-functional properties were made to the mixtures, in addition to the flour, concentrate and maltodextrin. The protein concentrate presented the highest water absorption capacity (4.46 g/g) and the highest apparent density (0.66 g/cm³). Maltodextrin and the 60:40 mixture were the ones that presented the lowest apparent density values (0.52 g/cm³). The flour presented the highest emulsifying capacity (39.60%), while the 0:100 mixture did not present water absorption capacity and lower oil absorption capacity (2.08 g/g). The 9:91 mixture presented the highest oil absorption capacity (2.68 g/g) and the lowest emulsifying capacity (7.44%). The flour presented a pH of 6.68 while the concentrate and the mixtures presented similar values (4.43). These studies indicate that flour and concentrate or protein concentrate:maltodextrin mixtures can be used as ingredients for the production or development of new food products, or their possible use as wall material in microencapsulated.

Escalate protein plates from legumes for sustainable human nutrition

Protein is one of the most important, foremost, and versatile nutrients in food. The quantity and quality of protein are determinants of its nutritional values. Therefore, adequate consumption of high-quality protein is essential for optimal growth, development, and health of humans. Based on short-term nitrogen balance studies, the Recommended Dietary Allowance of protein for the healthy adult with minimal physical activity is 0.8 g protein/kg body weight (BW) per day. Proteins are present in good quantities in not only animals but also in plants, especially in legumes. With the growing demand for protein, interest in plant proteins is also rising due to their comparative low cost as well as the increase in consumers' demand originating from health and environmental concerns. Legumes are nutrient-dense foods, comprising components identified as "antinutritional factors" that can reduce the bioavailability of macro and micronutrients. Other than nutritive value, the physiochemical and behavioral properties of proteins during processing plays a significant role in determining the end quality of food. The term "complete protein" refers to when all nine essential amino acids are present in the correct proportion in our bodies. To have a balanced diet, the right percentage of protein is required for our body. The consumption of these high protein-containing foods will lead to protein sustainability and eradicate malnutrition. Here, we shed light on major opportunities to strengthen the contribution of diversity in legume crops products to sustainable diets. This review will boost awareness and knowledge on underutilized proteinous foods into national nutritional security programs.

Genetically engineered bacterium: Principles, practices, and prospects

Advances in synthetic biology and the clinical application of bacteriotherapy enable the use of genetically engineered bacteria (GEB) to combat various diseases. GEB act as a small 'machine factory' in the intestine or other tissues to continuously produce heterologous proteins or molecular compounds and, thus, diagnose or cure disease or work as an adjuvant reagent for disease treatment by regulating the immune system. Although the achievements of GEBs in the treatment or adjuvant therapy of diseases are promising, the practical implementation of this new therapeutic modality remains a grand challenge, especially at the initial stage. In this review, we introduce the development of GEBs and their advantages in disease management, summarize the latest research advances in microbial genetic techniques, and discuss their administration routes, performance indicators and the limitations of GEBs used as platforms for disease management. We also present several examples of GEB applications in the treatment of cancers and metabolic diseases and further highlight their great potential for clinical application in the near future.

Bioactive and health-promoting properties of enzymatic hydrolysates of legume proteins: a review

This study comprehensively reviewed the effect of controlled enzymatic hydrolysis on the bioactivity of pulse protein hydrolysates (PPHs). Proteolysis results in the partial structural unfolding of pulse proteins with an increase in buried hydrophobic groups of peptide sequences. The use of PPHs in a dose-dependent manner can enhance free radical scavenging and improve antioxidant activities regarding inhibition of lipid oxidation, ferric reducing power, metal ion chelation, and β-carotene bleaching inhibition. Ultrafiltered peptide fractions with low molecular weights imparted angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effects during in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion and in vivo conditions. Ultrasonication, high-pressure pretreatments, and glycosylation as post-treatments can improve the antiradical, antioxidant, and ACE inhibitory activities of PPHs. The electrostatic attachment of pulse peptides to microbial cells can inhibit the growth and activity of bacteria and fungi. Bioactive pulse peptides can reduce serum cholesterol and triglycerides, and inhibit the formation of adipocyte lipid storage, allergenic factors, inflammatory markers, and arterial thrombus without cytotoxicity. The combination of germination and enzymatic hydrolysis can significantly increase the protein digestibility and bioavailability of essential amino acids. Moreover, the utilization and enrichment of bakery and meat products with functional PPHs ensure quality, safety, and health aspects of food products.

An insight into the health beneficial of probiotics dairy products: a critical review

Probiotic dairy products satisfy people's pursuit of health, and are widely favored because of their easy absorption, high nutritional value, and various health benefits. However, its effectiveness and safety are still controversial. This proposal aims to analyze the effect of probiotics on the quality characteristics of dairy products, clarify a series of physiological functions of probiotic dairy products and critically evaluate the effectiveness and safety of probiotic dairy products. Also, dairy products containing inactivated microorganisms were compared with probiotic products. The addition of probiotics enables dairy products to obtain unique quality characteristics, and probiotic dairy products have better health-promoting effects. This review will promote the further development of probiotic dairy products, provide directions for the research and development of probiotic-related products, and help guide the general public to choose and purchase probiotic fermentation products.

Alginate Particles for Enzyme Immobilization Using Spray Drying

Enzymes are important catalysts for biological processes due to their high catalytic activity and selectivity. However, their low thermal stability limited their industrial applications. The present work demonstrates a simple and effective method for enzyme immobilization via spray drying. Alginate was used as a support material. Phytase, an important enzyme in the animal feed industry, was selected to study the effect of enzyme immobilization using alginate particles on its thermal stability. The physicochemical properties of alginate particles such as size, surface morphology, and heat resistance were studied. Successful immobilization of phytase was confirmed by confocal microscopy, and the immobilized phytase retained 58% of its original activity upon heating at 95 °C, compared to 4% when the alginate support material was absent. Phytase was released promptly in a simulated gastrointestinal tract with >95% of its original activity recovered. The spray drying method for phytase immobilization is scalable and applicable to other enzymes for various applications.

Health Benefits of Cereal Grain- and Pulse-Derived Proteins

Pulses and whole grains are considered staple foods that provide a significant amount of calories, fibre and protein, making them key food sources in a nutritionally balanced diet. Additionally, pulses and whole grains contain many bioactive compounds such as dietary fibre, resistant starch, phenolic compounds and mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids that are known to combat chronic disease. Notably, recent research has demonstrated that protein derived from pulse and whole grain sources contains bioactive peptides that also possess disease-fighting properties. Mechanisms of action include inhibition or alteration of enzyme activities, vasodilatation, modulation of lipid metabolism and gut microbiome and oxidative stress reduction. Consumer demand for plant-based proteins has skyrocketed primarily based on the perceived health benefits and lower carbon footprint of consuming foods from plant sources versus animal. Therefore, more research should be invested in discovering the health-promoting effects that pulse and whole grain proteins have to offer.

Materials Used for the Microencapsulation of Probiotic Bacteria in the Food Industry

Probiotics and probiotic therapy have been rapidly developing in recent years due to an increasing number of people suffering from digestive system disorders and diseases related to intestinal dysbiosis. Owing to their activity in the intestines, including the production of short-chain fatty acids, probiotic strains of lactic acid bacteria can have a significant therapeutic effect. The activity of probiotic strains is likely reduced by their loss of viability during gastrointestinal transit. To overcome this drawback, researchers have proposed the process of microencapsulation, which increases the resistance of bacterial cells to external conditions. Various types of coatings have been used for microencapsulation, but the most popular ones are carbohydrate and protein microcapsules. Microencapsulating probiotics with vegetable proteins is an innovative approach that can increase the health value of the final product. This review describes the different types of envelope materials that have been used so far for encapsulating bacterial biomass and improving the survival of bacterial cells. The use of a microenvelope has initiated the controlled release of bacterial cells and an increase in their activity in the large intestine, which is the target site of probiotic strains.

Legume Proteins and Peptides as Compounds in Nutraceuticals: A Structural Basis for Dietary Health Effects

In the current climate of food security, quality aspects of legume crops have primary market economic and health impact. Legume proteins and peptides have been discovered to have a role far beyond supplying amino acids for growth and maintenance of body tissues. Several proteins (enzymatic inhibitors, lectins, storage globulins) and peptides derived from them (lunasin, hydrophobic peptides) have shown anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolemic, glucose-lowering, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunostimulant properties. Further understanding of how structural features of legume proteins affect in vivo digestion and production of bioactive sequences represents a key step in the valorization of nutraceutical potentiality of legume proteins and peptides derived from them. In this work, the relationship between structure and bioavailability of protein and peptides are reviewed and discussed.

A review of factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds: from construction to application

Zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds have positive prospects in the food industry, but an important limiting factor for development is colloidal instability. Currently, extensive researches are focused on solving the instability of zein nanoparticles, but since the beginning of the studies, there has not been a summary of the factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles. In the present work, the factors were reviewed comprehensively from the perspective of carrier construction and application evaluation. The former mainly includes type, quantity, and characteristics of biopolymer, the mass ratio of biopolymer/bioactive compound to zein, blending sequence of biopolymer, and location of encapsulated bioactive compounds. The latter mainly includes pH, heating, ionic strength, storage, freeze-drying, and gastrointestinal digestion. The former is the prerequisite for the success of the latter. The challenge is that stability research is limited to the laboratory level, and it is difficult to ensure that the stability results are suitable for commercial food matrices due to their complexity. At the laboratory level, the future trends are the influence of external energy and the cross-complexity and uniformity of stability research. The review is expected to provide systematic understanding and guidance for the development of zein-based nanoparticles stability.

Microencapsulation by spray chilling in the food industry: Opportunities, challenges, and innovations

Background

The increasing demand for healthy eating habits and the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which resulted in a health crisis and global economic slowdown, has led to the consumption of functional and practical foods. Bioactive ingredients can be an alternative for healthy food choices; however, most functional compounds are sensitive to the adverse conditions of processing and digestive tract, impairing its use in food matrices, and industrial-scale applications. Microencapsulation by spray chilling can be a viable alternative to reduce these barriers in food processing.

Scope and approach

This review discusses the use of spray chilling technique for microencapsulation of bioactive food ingredients. Although this technology is known in the pharmaceutical industry, it has been little exploited in the food sector. General aspects of spray chilling, the process parameters, advantages, and disadvantages are addressed. The feasibility and stability of encapsulated bioactive ingredients in food matrices and the bioavailability in vitro of solid lipid microparticles produced by spray chilling are also discussed.

Main findings and conclusions

Research on the microencapsulation of bioactive ingredients by spray chilling for use in foods has shown the effectiveness of this technique to encapsulate bioactive compounds for application in food matrices. Solid microparticles produced by spray chilling can improve the stability and bioavailability of bioactive ingredients. However, further studies are required, including the use of lipid-based encapsulating agents, process parameters, and novel formulations for application in food, beverages, and packaging, as well as in vivo studies to prove the effectiveness of the formulations.

Emerging Technologies and Coating Materials for Improved Probiotication in Food Products: a Review

From the past few decades, consumers' demand for probiotic-based functional and healthy food products is rising exponentially. Encapsulation is an emerging field to protect probiotics from unfavorable conditions and to deliver probiotics at the target place while maintaining the controlled release in the colon. Probiotics have been encapsulated for decades using different encapsulation methods to maintain their viability during processing, storage, and digestion and to give health benefits. This review focuses on novel microencapsulation techniques of probiotic bacteria including vacuum drying, microwave drying, spray freeze drying, fluidized bed drying, impinging aerosol technology, hybridization system, ultrasonication with their recent advancement, and characteristics of the commonly used polymers have been briefly discussed. Other than novel techniques, characterization of microcapsules along with their mechanism of release and stability have shown great interest recently in developing novel functional food products with synergetic effects, especially in COVID-19 outbreak. A thorough discussion of novel processing technologies and applications in food products with the incorporation of recent research works is the novelty and highlight of this review paper.

Legumes as basic ingredients in the production of dairy-free cheese alternatives: a review

Research into dairy-free alternative products, whether plant-based or cell-based, is growing fast and the food industry is facing a new challenge of creating innovative, nutritious, accessible, and natural dairy-free cheese alternatives. The market demand for these products is continuing to increase owing to more people choosing to reduce or eliminate meat and dairy products from their diet for health, environmental sustainability, and/or ethical reasons. This review investigates the current status of dairy product alternatives. Legume proteins have good technological properties and are cheap, which gives them a strong commercial potential to be used in plant-based cheese-like products. However, few legume proteins have been explored in the formulation, development, and manufacture of a fully dairy-free cheese because of their undesirable properties: heat stable anti-nutritional factors and a beany flavor. These can be alleviated by novel or traditional and economical techniques. The improvement and diversification of the formulation of legume-based cheese alternatives is strongly suggested as a low-cost step towards more sustainable food chains. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Probiotics in Fish Nutrition—Long-Standing Household Remedy or Native Nutraceuticals?

Over the last decades, aquaculture production increased rapidly. The future development of the industry highly relies on the sustainable utilization of natural resources. The need for improving disease resistance, growth performance, food conversion, and product safety for human consumption has stimulated the application of probiotics in aquaculture. Probiotics increase growth and feed conversion, improve health status, raise disease resistance, decrease stress susceptibility, and improve general vigor. Currently, most probiotics still originate from terrestrial sources rather than fish. However, host-associated (autochthonous) probiotics are likely more persistent in the gastrointestinal tract of fish and may, therefore, exhibit longer-lasting effects on the host. Probiotic candidates are commonly screened in in vitro assays, but the transfer to in vivo assessment is often problematic. In conclusion, modulation of the host-associated microbiome by the use of complex probiotics is promising, but a solid understanding of the interactions involved is only in its infancy and requires further research. Probiotics could be used to explore novel ingredients such as chitin-rich insect meal, which cannot be digested by the fish host alone. Most importantly, probiotics offer the opportunity to improve stress and disease resistance, which is among the most pressing problems in aquaculture.