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Manson AC, Johnson BJ, Wolfenden L, Sutherland R, Golley RK. Unpacking the cost of the lunchbox for Australian families: a secondary analysis. Health Promot Int 2024; 39:daad194. [PMID: 38198723 PMCID: PMC10781432 DOI: 10.1093/heapro/daad194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Ninety per cent of Australian school children bring a home-packed lunch to school, with 44% of the food consumed during school hours being unhealthy. Among other factors, cost is a key consideration for food provision; however, the costs to Australian families are not well understood. Therefore, we aimed to determine what families are currently paying for school lunchboxes in Australian primary schools and to examine associations between food costs and socio-demographic factors with dietary quality. An audit of local retail outlets was used to determine the food costs of lunchbox contents. Costs (AUD) were adjusted for inflation as of early 2023. The lunchboxes of 1026 children aged 4-12 years at 12 Catholic primary schools in New South Wales, Australia, were assessed at the start of the day, using photography assessment methods and a validated School Food Checklist. The mean cost of lunchbox contents was $4.48 AUD (SD 1.53), containing a mean energy of 2699 kJ (SD 859), with 37.3% (SD 23.9) of energy sourced from unhealthy foods. Multiple linear regression analyses found that the strongest predictors of higher lunchbox cost (P < 0.05) were a higher proportion of energy from unhealthy foods (B = 0.016) and lower Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (B = -0.178), when controlling for child socio-demographics. The results indicated that lunchbox food costs to Australian families are comparable to alternative school food service models in Australia and internationally. Results demonstrate the cost of food is not the only barrier to providing a healthy school lunchbox. Demonstrating a need for cost-considerate systematic interventions addressing food provision challenges and socio-economic disparities faced by families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra C Manson
- Flinders University, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Caring Futures Institute, Bedford Park, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Brittany J Johnson
- Flinders University, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Caring Futures Institute, Bedford Park, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Luke Wolfenden
- Hunter New England Population Health, Hunter New England Local Health District, Wallsend, NSW 2287, Australia
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, NSW, Australia
- Population Health Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia
- National Centre of Implementation Science, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Rachel Sutherland
- Hunter New England Population Health, Hunter New England Local Health District, Wallsend, NSW 2287, Australia
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, NSW, Australia
- Population Health Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia
- National Centre of Implementation Science, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Rebecca K Golley
- Flinders University, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Caring Futures Institute, Bedford Park, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
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Donovan K, Lenferna De La Motte KA, Zinn C. Healthy Food Affordability in a New Zealand Context: Perception or Reality? JOURNAL OF HUNGER & ENVIRONMENTAL NUTRITION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/19320248.2022.2047862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katie Donovan
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Caryn Zinn
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
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Astell-Burt T, Navakatikyan MA, Walsan R, Davis W, Figtree G, Arnolda L, Feng X. Green space and cardiovascular health in people with type 2 diabetes. Health Place 2021; 69:102554. [PMID: 33857869 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Associations between green space type and 9-year risk of incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) hospitalisations and deaths were analysed in 4166 people with type 2 diabetes in the Sax Institute's 45 and Up Study. Incidence of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, fatal or non-fatal CVD events and acute myocardial infarctions (AMI) were 14.67%, 7.23%, 47.36%, and 4.51%, respectively. After full adjustment, more tree canopy was associated with lower CVD mortality, lower fatal or non-fatal CVD events, and lower AMI risk. More open grass was associated with lower all-cause mortality, lower CVD mortality and lower fatal or non-fatal CVD events, but higher AMI risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Astell-Burt
- Population Wellbeing and Environment Research Lab (PowerLab), School of Health and Society, Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute (IHMRI) and University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia; Menzies Centre for Health Policy, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; National Institute of Environmental Health, China CDC, Beijing, China; School of Population Medicine and Public Health, Peking Union Medical College and the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China.
| | - Michael A Navakatikyan
- Population Wellbeing and Environment Research Lab (PowerLab), School of Health and Society, Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Ramya Walsan
- Population Wellbeing and Environment Research Lab (PowerLab), School of Health and Society, Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia; School of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Walt Davis
- Australian Health Services Research Institute, Sydney Business School, Faculty of Business and Law, University of Wollongong, Australia
| | - Gemma Figtree
- Kolling Institute, University of Sydney and Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Leonard Arnolda
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute (IHMRI) and University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Xiaoqi Feng
- Population Wellbeing and Environment Research Lab (PowerLab), School of Health and Society, Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia; School of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW, Sydney, Australia; Menzies Centre for Health Policy, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; National Institute of Environmental Health, China CDC, Beijing, China
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Williams MB, Wang W, Taniguchi T, Salvatore AL, Groover WK, Wetherill M, Love C, Cannady T, Grammar M, Standridge J, Fox J, Jernigan VBB. Impact of a Healthy Retail Intervention on Fruits and Vegetables and Total Sales in Tribally Owned Convenience Stores: Findings From the THRIVE Study. Health Promot Pract 2020; 22:796-805. [PMID: 32912007 DOI: 10.1177/1524839920953122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Healthy retail interventions are a recommended intervention strategy to address diet-related diseases, such as obesity and diabetes; however, retail managers are concerned about their bottom line. This study's aim was to assess the impact of a healthy retail intervention on fruits and vegetables (FV) sales, as well as total sales, in tribally owned convenience stores where grocery stores are scarce. METHOD We analyzed weekly sales data over the first 6 months of a healthy retail intervention. We assessed the proportion of sales from two FV baskets. The FV basket included all fresh, canned, and dried FV sold at stores; while the fruits, vegetables, and salads (FVS) basket included all FV items as well as all salads sold. We compared mean weekly sales rates in intervention and control stores over the 6-month period using generalized estimating equations models to account for repeated measures. RESULTS Mean weekly FV basket sales rates were higher in intervention stores than control stores in both Nations. Mean weekly FVS baskets sales were significantly higher in intervention stores than control stores in one Nation and were higher, but not statistically significant, in intervention stores in the other Nation. Total sales remained steady throughout the intervention period. CONCLUSIONS The THRIVE (Tribal Health and Resilience in Vulnerable Environments) intervention increased FV sales without negatively affecting total sales. Policy and Practice Implications. Healthy retail interventions in tribal convenience stores, where many Native Americans living in rural areas shop due to scarcity of grocery stores, could improve diet-related disparities without reducing total sales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary B Williams
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Tulsa, OK, USA
| | - Wenyu Wang
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Tulsa, OK, USA
| | - Tori Taniguchi
- Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Tulsa, OK, USA
| | | | | | | | - Charlotte Love
- Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Tulsa, OK, USA
| | | | | | | | - Jill Fox
- The Chickasaw Nation, Ada, OK, USA
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Lee AJ, Kane S, Herron LM, Matsuyama M, Lewis M. A tale of two cities: the cost, price-differential and affordability of current and healthy diets in Sydney and Canberra, Australia. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2020; 17:80. [PMID: 32571334 PMCID: PMC7309977 DOI: 10.1186/s12966-020-00981-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The perception that healthy foods are more expensive than unhealthy foods has been reported widely to be a key barrier to healthy eating. However, assessment of the relative cost of healthy and unhealthy foods and diets is fraught methodologically. Standardised approaches to produce reliable data on the cost of total diets and different dietary patterns, rather than selected foods, are lacking globally to inform policy and practice. METHODS This paper reports the first application, in randomly selected statistical areas stratified by socio-economic status in two Australian cities, of the Healthy Diets Australian Standardized Affordability and Pricing (ASAP) method protocols: diet pricing tools based on national nutrition survey data and dietary guidelines; store sampling and location; determination of household incomes; food price data collection; and analysis and reporting. The methods were developed by the International Network on Food and Obesity/NCD Research, Monitoring and Action Support (INFORMAS) as a prototype of an optimum approach to assess, compare and monitor the cost and affordability of diets across different geographical and socio-economic settings and times. RESULTS Under current tax policy in Australia, healthy diets would be 15-17% less expensive than current (unhealthy) diets in all locations assessed. Nevertheless, healthy diets are likely to be unaffordable for low income households, costing more than 30% of disposable income in both cities surveyed. Households spent around 58% of their food budget on unhealthy food and drinks. Food costs were on average 4% higher in Canberra than Sydney, and tended to be higher in high socioeconomic locations. CONCLUSIONS Health and fiscal policy actions to increase affordability of healthy diets for low income households are required urgently. Also, there is a need to counter perceptions that current, unhealthy diets must be less expensive than healthy diets. The Healthy Diets ASAP methods could be adapted to assess the cost and affordability of healthy and unhealthy diets elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J Lee
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, 288 Herston Road, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia.
| | - Sarah Kane
- Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, QLD, 4059, Australia
| | - Lisa-Maree Herron
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, 288 Herston Road, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - Misa Matsuyama
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, 288 Herston Road, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - Meron Lewis
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, 288 Herston Road, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
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Thomas F, Thomas C, Hooper L, Rosenberg G, Vohra J, Bauld L. Area deprivation, screen time and consumption of food and drink high in fat salt and sugar (HFSS) in young people: results from a cross-sectional study in the UK. BMJ Open 2019; 9:e027333. [PMID: 31256025 PMCID: PMC6609085 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate associations between deprivation in young people and consumption of foods high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS), screen time exposure and health knowledge. DESIGN An online cross-sectional survey with people aged 11-19 years in the UK, where participants reported consumption behaviours across 13 HFSS and two non-HFSS groups; screen time for commercial television and streaming services; and knowledge of health conditions and their links to obesity. SETTING UK PARTICIPANTS: A total of 3348 young people aged 11-19 years across the UK. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The study assessed the consumption behaviours, commercial screen time exposure and the health knowledge of 3348 people aged 11-19 years. Multivariate binary regression analysis, controlling for age and gender, was performed. RESULTS Deprivation level was associated with increases in consumption of six of the HFSS products including energy drinks (OR: 2.943, p<0.001) and sugary drinks (OR: 1.938, p<0.001) and a reduction in consumption in the two non-HFSS products included in the study, fruit (OR: 0.668, p=0.004) and vegetables (OR: 0.306, p<0.001). Deprivation was associated with high weekly screen time of both television (OR: 2.477, p<0.001) and streaming (OR: 1.679, p=0.001). Health knowledge was also associated with deprivation. There was lower awareness of the association of obesity and cancer (OR: 0.697, p=0.003), type 2 diabetes (OR: 0.64, p=0.004) and heart disease (OR: 0.519, p<0.001) in the most deprived. CONCLUSIONS Young people from the more deprived areas of the UK were more likely to consume a range of HFSS products, report increased exposure to HFSS advertising and have a poorer awareness of health conditions associated with overweight and obesity. The findings suggest that population-level measures addressing childhood obesity should account for consumption patterns among different groups of children and young people and the factors that may influence these.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Thomas
- Cancer Policy Research Centre, Cancer Research UK, London, UK
| | | | - Lucie Hooper
- Cancer Policy Research Centre, Cancer Research UK, London, UK
| | | | - Jyotsna Vohra
- Cancer Policy Research Centre, Cancer Research UK, London, UK
| | - Linda Bauld
- Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Ferreira FM, Gomes MC, Granville-Garcia AF, Santin GC, Pintarelli TP, Feltrin J, Fraiz FC. How much does household food insecurity explain income inequalities in untreated dental caries? Int J Paediatr Dent 2019; 29:325-331. [PMID: 30664294 DOI: 10.1111/ipd.12471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathway by which socioeconomic disadvantages are manifested in the occurrence of dental caries remains unclear. AIM To explore how much the association between untreated dental caries and income inequalities is related to household food insecurity (HFI). DESIGN A population-based study was conducted with a sample of 466 12-year-old students. Dental caries was evaluated by an examiner who had undergone calibration exercises. HFI was assessed using the Food Insecurity Scale validated for Brazilian Portuguese. Poisson regression models were created to determine associations between dental caries and both household income and HFI. The proportion of the income effect on dental caries explained by HFI was determined by the variation in percentages between the crude prevalence ratio (PRc ) for dental caries and this measure adjusted by HFI (PRa ). RESULTS The prevalence of dental caries was higher among children from families with a per capita household income lower than US$ 71 (PR: 1.69; 95%CI: 1.15-2.49) or from US$ 71 to US$ 142 (PR: 1.50; 95%CI: 1.04-2.17). Moreover, 14% of the association between a low income and dental caries was explained by HFI. CONCLUSIONS Differences in the prevalence of dental caries in schoolchildren related to socioeconomic inequalities could partially be attributed to HFI in low-income families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Morais Ferreira
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Orthodontics, Universidade Federal de Minas gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | - Gabriela Cristina Santin
- Department of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual de Maringá
- Centro Universitário Ingá, Maringa, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana Feltrin
- Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, Federal University of Paraná, UFPR, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Fabian Calixto Fraiz
- Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, Federal University of Paraná, UFPR, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
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Kemp C, Collins J, Palermo C. Is the type and location of grocery stores a predictor of healthy and unhealthy food availability? A cross-sectional study. Nutr Diet 2019; 76:277-283. [PMID: 30997738 DOI: 10.1111/1747-0080.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM To investigate whether geographical location or type of store is associated with differences in healthy and unhealthy food availability in grocery stores. METHODS A cross-sectional study using the Victorian Healthy Food Basket to measure food availability (44 'healthy' and 10 'unhealthy' items) in a convenience sample of 112 stores in urban and regional Victoria, Australia. Logistic regression analyses assessed whether location (regional, urban), distance from capital city central business district (km) and type of store (chain supermarket, independent supermarket and general store) predicted the number of missing healthy and unhealthy food items. RESULTS There were 54 chain supermarkets, 43 independent supermarkets and 15 general stores, with 56% of stores located in urban areas and 44% located regionally. The strongest significant predictor of missing items was being a general store, which had greater odds (odds ratio (OR) = 136, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 13-1399) of having missing 'healthy' items and missing 'unhealthy' items (OR = 63, 95% CI = 7-575), compared with chain supermarkets. Independent supermarkets had increased odds of having missing 'healthy' items (OR = 7, 95% CI = 2-22) compared with chain supermarkets. Regional store location was a significant predictor of missing 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' items, compared with urban location (OR = 6, 95% CI = 2-25) and (OR = 7, 95% CI = 2-29), respectively. CONCLUSIONS Store type was a stronger predictor of stores having missing 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' food items than the store distance from a large urban centre. General stores and independent supermarkets may be important settings for interventions to improve availability of healthy food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Kemp
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Food, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jorja Collins
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Food, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Claire Palermo
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Food, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Storr R, Carins J, Rundle-Thiele S. Assessing Support for Advantaged and Disadvantaged Groups: A Comparison of Urban Food Environments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E1135. [PMID: 30934887 PMCID: PMC6479462 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16071135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Individuals from lower-socio-economic status (SES) communities have increased risk of developing obesity in developed countries such as Australia. Given the influence of the environment on dietary behaviour, this paper seeks to examine food environments in areas of differing social advantage. An established measurement tool (the NEMS-Nutrition Environment Measurement Survey), that captures aspects of support for healthy eating within restaurants (NEMS-R) and grocery/convenience stores (NEMS-S), was applied to both a high-SES and a low-SES suburb within Brisbane, Australia. The study found a significantly more supportive restaurant food environment in the high-SES suburb, with greater access to and availability of healthful foods, as well as facilitators for, reduced barriers to, and substantially more nutrition information for healthful eating. A higher number of outlets were found in the high-SES suburb, and later opening times were also observed. Overall, the results from stores (NEMS-S) suggest poor support for healthful eating across both suburbs. This study highlights how food environments in low-SES regions continue to be less supportive of healthful eating. Public health strategies must move beyond individual-focused strategies to ensure that our most disadvantaged, low-SES communities have an equal opportunity to access healthful foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Storr
- Social Marketing at Griffith, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia.
| | - Julia Carins
- Social Marketing at Griffith, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia.
- Defence Science & Technology Group, Land Division, Scottsdale, TAS 7260, Australia.
| | - Sharyn Rundle-Thiele
- Social Marketing at Griffith, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia.
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Pulker CE, Thornton LE, Trapp GSA. What is known about consumer nutrition environments in Australia? A scoping review of the literature. Obes Sci Pract 2018; 4:318-337. [PMID: 30151227 PMCID: PMC6105710 DOI: 10.1002/osp4.275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Food environments can influence food selection and hold the potential to reduce obesity, non-communicable diseases and their inequalities. 'Consumer nutrition environments' describe what consumers encounter within a food retail outlet, including products, price, promotion and placement. This study aimed to summarize the attributes that have been examined in existing peer-reviewed studies of Australian consumer nutrition environments, identify knowledge gaps and provide recommendations for future research. METHODS A systematic search of peer-reviewed literature was conducted. Sixty-six studies that assessed an aspect of within-store consumer nutrition environments were included. RESULTS Most studies were published from 2011 onwards and were conducted in capital cities and in supermarkets. Studies assessed the domains of product (40/66), price (26/66), promotion (16/66) and placement (6/66). The most common research themes identified were assessment of the impact of area socioeconomic status (13/66), remoteness (9/66) and food outlet type (7/66) on healthy food prices; change in price of healthy foods (6/66); variety of healthy foods (5/66); and prevalence of unhealthy child-orientated products (5/66). CONCLUSIONS This scoping review identified a large number of knowledge gaps. Recommended priorities for researchers are as follows: (1) develop consistent observational methodology, (2) consider consumer nutrition environments in rural and remote communities, (3) develop an understanding of food service outlets, (4) build on existing evidence in all four domains of product, price, placement and promotion and (5) determine effective policy and store-based interventions to increase healthy food selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. E. Pulker
- School of Public HealthCurtin UniversityPerthWAAustralia
- Telethon Kids InstituteThe University of Western AustraliaPerthWAAustralia
| | - L. E. Thornton
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition SciencesDeakin UniversityMelbourneVICAustralia
| | - G. S. A. Trapp
- Telethon Kids InstituteThe University of Western AustraliaPerthWAAustralia
- School of Population and Global HealthThe University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWAAustralia
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