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Leucht S, Priller J, Davis JM. Antipsychotic Drugs: A Concise Review of History, Classification, Indications, Mechanism, Efficacy, Side Effects, Dosing, and Clinical Application. Am J Psychiatry 2024; 181:865-878. [PMID: 39350614 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.20240738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2024]
Abstract
The introduction of the first antipsychotic drug, chlorpromazine, was a milestone for psychiatry. The authors review the history, classification, indications, mechanism, efficacy, side effects, dosing, drug initiation, switching, and other practical issues and questions related to antipsychotics. Classifications such as first-generation/typical versus second-generation/atypical antipsychotics are neither valid nor useful; these agents should be described according to the Neuroscience-based Nomenclature (NbN). Antipsychotic drugs are not specific for treating schizophrenia. They reduce psychosis regardless of the underlying diagnosis, and they go beyond nonspecific sedation. All currently available antipsychotic drugs are dopamine blockers or dopamine partial agonists. In schizophrenia, effect sizes for relapse prevention are larger than for acute treatment. A major unresolved problem is the implausible increase in placebo response in antipsychotic drug trials over the decades. Differences in side effects, which can be objectively measured, such as weight gain, are less equivocal than differences in rating-scale-measured (subjective) efficacy. The criteria for choosing among antipsychotics are mainly pragmatic and include factors such as available formulations, metabolism, half-life, efficacy, and side effects in previous illness episodes. Plasma levels help to detect nonadherence, and once-daily dosing at night (which is possible with many antipsychotics) and long-acting injectable formulations are useful when adherence is a problem. Dose-response curves for both acute treatment and relapse prevention follow a hyperbolic pattern, with maximally efficacious average dosages for schizophrenia of around 5 mg/day risperidone equivalents. Computer apps facilitating the choice between drugs are available. Future drug development should include pharmacogenetics and focus on drugs for specific aspects of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Leucht
- Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Munich (Leucht, Priller); German Center for Mental Health, Munich (Leucht, Priller); Neuropsychiatry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, and German Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Berlin (Priller); University of Edinburgh and UK Dementia Research Institute, Edinburgh (Priller); Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago (Davis)
| | - Josef Priller
- Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Munich (Leucht, Priller); German Center for Mental Health, Munich (Leucht, Priller); Neuropsychiatry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, and German Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Berlin (Priller); University of Edinburgh and UK Dementia Research Institute, Edinburgh (Priller); Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago (Davis)
| | - John M Davis
- Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Munich (Leucht, Priller); German Center for Mental Health, Munich (Leucht, Priller); Neuropsychiatry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, and German Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Berlin (Priller); University of Edinburgh and UK Dementia Research Institute, Edinburgh (Priller); Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago (Davis)
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Macedo BL, Veloso MF, Dias IB, Ayub JGM, Beijamini V. Sex differences in the anticompulsive-like effect of memantine: Involvement of nitric oxide pathway but not AMPA receptors. Behav Brain Res 2024; 461:114834. [PMID: 38142859 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Memantine, an N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, has been examined as a potential treatment for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Yet, there is limited knowledge regarding how it works to reduce compulsive behaviour and whether it has different effects on individuals based on their sex. Herein, we investigated if there are sex differences in the anticompulsive-like effect of memantine in adult Swiss mice. Additionally, we explored whether the nitric oxide (NO) pathway and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors play a role in memantine's effects. To start, we assessed the impact of a single intraperitoneal dose of memantine (at 3, 5, and 10 mg/kg) on behaviours exhibited in the open field test (OFT) and the marble-burying test (MBT), the latter being a predictive test for anticompulsive effects. All doses of memantine reduced marble-burying behaviour in both male and female mice without affecting their locomotor activity in the OFT. This anticompulsive-like effect was also confirmed in another predictive test, the nest-building test, with the highest memantine dose (10 mg/kg) reducing nest-building behaviour without significant differences between male and female mice. We observed that pre-treatment with L-arginine, a NO precursor, mitigated the anticompulsive-like effect of memantine in male mice but had no effect in female mice in the MBT. Finally, NBQX, an AMPA receptor antagonist, did not block the anticompulsive-like effect of memantine. In summary, our study suggests that the anticompulsive-like effect of memantine does not appear to be sex-specific, does not depend on AMPA receptors, and involves the NO pathway primarily in male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breno Lopes Macedo
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate Program, Health Sciences Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Mariana Friedrich Veloso
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Isabella Braun Dias
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Júlia Grigorini Mori Ayub
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate Program, Health Sciences Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Beijamini
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate Program, Health Sciences Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Centre, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil.
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