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Wang H, Huo T, Tao H, Yang H. Monitoring the dynamics of ketamine analogues use in China through wastewater analysis: The emergence of 2-FDCNEK and 2-MDCK. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 957:177674. [PMID: 39571805 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2024] [Revised: 11/11/2024] [Accepted: 11/18/2024] [Indexed: 11/29/2024]
Abstract
Ketamine analogues are rapidly emerging around the world and are considered one of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) of greatest concern. However, little is known about their actual use at the community level and their evolution on the drug market. Wastewater-based epidemiology is a useful tool to explore the profile of NPS use. Influent wastewater samples were collected from 21 cities in Southwest China between 2022 and 2023, and ketamine analogues were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Results showed that five ketamine analogues were detected in at least one wastewater sample from 19 cities, of which four new analogues were found in wastewater for the first time. 2-fluoro deschloro-N-ethyl-ketamine (2-FDCNEK) was the most frequently detected analogue, with a population-normalized mass load of up to 3.18 mg day-1 1000 inh-1. The remaining analogues were detected less frequently, with mass loads of almost below 1 mg day-1 1000 inh-1. 2-fluoro deschloroketamine (2-FDCK), which was classified as a controlled substance in 2021, showed an evident downward trend. Furthermore, 2-(methylamino)-2-(2-methyphenyl)-cyclohexanone (2-MDCK) disappeared within a short period, whereas 2-FDCK and 2-FDCNEK persisted over the two-year observation period, suggesting that ketamine analogues containing halogen atoms on the phenyl group may have psychoactive effects similar to those of ketamine, with a high potential for abuse. These findings highlight the importance of wastewater analysis in monitoring the dynamic profile of NPS use, providing valuable information for authorities to take measures to prevent the rapid spread of NPS and minimize health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanbo Wang
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China.
| | - Tingting Huo
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Hongli Tao
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Hao Yang
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
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Kuai L, Li X, Xu D, Zeng L, Xu P, Di B, Yan F, Wang D. Behavioral studies of the abuse potential and anesthetic and sedative effects of etomidate in male rodents. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024:10.1007/s00213-024-06715-5. [PMID: 39527141 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06715-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 11/04/2024] [Indexed: 11/16/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Etomidate is a short-acting general anesthetic for clinical use and has been used as alternative to propofol or added to the powdered drug and e-cigarette cartridges recently, leading to an increase in abuse. But there have been no studies conducted on the abuse potential of etomidate. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS This study aimed to evaluate the abuse potential of etomidate via conditioned place preference (CPP) and self-administration tests, reflecting its rewarding and reinforcing effects. In addition, righting reflex and open-field tests were conducted to evaluate the anesthetic and sedative effects of etomidate. RESULTS In male mice, the ED50 after intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of anesthetic effect for etomidate was 9.156 mg/kg and the ED50 of the sedative effect 5 min after intraperitoneal injection was 2.389 mg/kg. Etomidate induced CPP in male mice at the minimum dose of 3 mg/kg i.p. and supported stable self-administration in male rats at the dose of 0.075 mg/kg/intravenous infusion. The dose-response curve of etomidate was an inverted U-shape, which showed significant self-administrations compared with the vehicle group at doses of 0.05-0.1 mg/kg/infusion etomidate and the highest intake of 21.1 ± 0.64 infusions per 4 h-session. CONCLUSIONS These results clearly demonstrate that etomidate has rewarding and reinforcing effects in male rodents, as well as effects on anesthesia and motor inhibition. These findings indicate the possibility of abuse potential in humans using etomidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixin Kuai
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193
| | - Xiangyu Li
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China, 100193
| | - Deli Xu
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193
| | - Linggao Zeng
- Chongqing Institute for Food and Drug Control, Chongqing, China, 401121
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Monitoring of Anaesthetic and Psychotropic Substances, Chongqing , China, 401121
| | - Peng Xu
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China, 100193
| | - Bin Di
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193
| | - Fang Yan
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China.
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193.
| | - Dan Wang
- Office of China National Narcotics Control Commission, China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, Beijing, China, 100193.
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China, 100193.
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Xiao Y, Yuan S, Luo R, Tang Y, Wang X, Xiang P, Di B. Monitoring of ketamine-based emerging contaminants in wastewater: a direct-injection method and fragmentation pathway study. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2024; 59:389-402. [PMID: 39308124 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2024.2403280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 09/05/2024] [Accepted: 09/07/2024] [Indexed: 11/05/2024]
Abstract
The ketamine (KET) and its analogs consumed by humans are becoming emerging contaminants (ECs), as they at present in surface waters after being carried through wastewater systems. Drugs in wastewater can be analyzed using the direct-injection method, a simple wastewater analysis (WWA) method that can provide objective, continuous and nearly to real-time findings. This article describes an ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous quantification and confirmation of seven KET-based ECs in wastewater by direct injection. After optimization of the UPLC-MS/MS and sample pretreatment conditions, the method was validated and applied to samples (n = 157) collected from several wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in southern China in which KET had the highest detection rate. The established direct-injection method was not only simple to perform but also had better sensitivity, shorter detection times, and analyzed more KET-based ECs than currently published methods, meeting the requirements for the monitoring and high-throughput analysis of common KET-based ECs. We also analyzed the fragmentation pathway of KET-based ECs to obtain product ion information on other unknown substances. Additional studies are needed to establish a comprehensive direct-injection screening method of ECs in wastewater on model-based assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xiao
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Shuai Yuan
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Ruxin Luo
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yiling Tang
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Bin Di
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
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Cheng WC, Dao KL, Wong WC. Fluorodeschloroketamine found as a street drug in drug seizures and drug driving cases in Hong Kong. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 361:112075. [PMID: 38850618 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the decline of the use of ketamine, one of the common drugs of abuse in Hong Kong, detection of ketamine-related analogues in local laboratories has been encountered. AIM A brief account of the occurrence of fluorodeschloroketamine (FDCK) in forensic cases is reported through a retrospective study of all drug seizures and driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) cases since its first appearance. METHODS Identification of FDCK in drug seizures was achieved through gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and/or liquid chromatography - diode array detection (LC-DAD) methods while its quantification was performed using gas chromatography - flame ionization detection (GC-FID). For the analysis of blood samples in DUID cases, identification and quantification were performed using LC-MS/MS by monitoring the respective transitions of FDCK and fluorodeschloronorketamine (FDCNK) using ketamine-d4 and norketamine-d4 respectively as internal standards. RESULTS Since its first submission in November 2018, a total of 74 drug seizure cases (151 items) and 6 drug driving cases were encountered till December 2019. Drug seizures found with FDCK were physically similar to those of ketamine seizures. The majority of items were detected with FDCK only (103 items, ∼67%) or as a mixture of FDCK with ketamine (42 items, ∼28%). The drug purity detected with either FDCK only or FDCK mixed with ketamine was high which was similar to those purity found in ketamine seizures. The blood drug concentrations of FDCK of the 6 drug driving cases were in the range of <0.002-1.1 μg/mL and other psychoactive drug(s)/metabolite(s) were also identified. Except for one case where the analysis of the metabolite, fluorodeschloronorketamine (FDCNK), was not conducted due to insufficient sample, the FDCK (FDCNK) concentrations in blood found in the 6 cases were <0.002 (0.005), 0.002 (0.002), 0.002 (0.003), 0.02 (0.035), 0.87 (0.44) and 1.1 (not determined) μg/mL. CONCLUSIONS With the drug seizures found with FDCK resembled in physical appearance with ketamine seizures, users might likely misuse it as ketamine. Though complicated by other drugs found, it is speculated that the two cases with higher concentration of FDCK found in blood (1.1 and 0.87 μg/mL) might have contributed to the impairment observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Chi Cheng
- Forensic Science Division, Government Laboratory, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
| | - Kwok-Leung Dao
- Forensic Science Division, Government Laboratory, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Wing-Cheong Wong
- Forensic Science Division, Government Laboratory, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
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Shaw HE, Patel DR, Gannon BM, Fitzgerald LR, Carbonaro TM, Johnson CR, Fantegrossi WE. Phencyclidine-Like Abuse Liability and Psychosis-Like Neurocognitive Effects of Novel Arylcyclohexylamine Drugs of Abuse in Rodents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 390:14-28. [PMID: 38272671 PMCID: PMC11192579 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Abuse of novel arylcyclohexylamines (ACX) poses risks for toxicities, including adverse neurocognitive effects. In vivo effects of ring-substituted analogs of phencyclidine (PCP), eticyclidine (PCE), and ketamine are understudied. Adult male National Institutes of Health Swiss mice were used to assess locomotor effects of PCP and its 3-OH, 3-MeO, 3-Cl, and 4-MeO analogs, PCE and its 3-OH and 3-MeO analogs, and ketamine and its deschloro and 2F-deschloro analogs, in comparison with those of methamphetamine (METH), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and two benzofuran analogs of MDMA. PCP-like interoceptive effects for all of these ACXs were determined using a food-reinforced drug discrimination procedure in adult male Sprague Dawley rats. A novel operant assay of rule-governed behavior incorporating aspects of attentional set-shifting was used to profile psychosis-like neurocognitive effects of PCP and 3-Cl-PCP in rats, in comparison with cocaine and morphine. PCP-like ACXs were more effective locomotor stimulants than the amphetamines, PCE-like ACXs were as effective as the amphetamines, and ketamine-like ACXs were less effective than the amphetamines. Addition of -Cl, -OH, or -OMe at the 3-position on the aromatic ring did not impact locomotor effectiveness, but addition of -OMe at the 4-position reduced locomotor effectiveness. Lethal effects were induced by drugs with -OH at the 3-position or -OMe at the 3- or 4-position. All novel ACXs substituted at least partially for PCP, and PCP and 3-Cl-PCP elicited dose-dependent psychosis-like neurocognitive deficits in the rule-governed behavior task not observed with cocaine or morphine. Novel ACXs exhibit substantial abuse liability and toxicities not necessarily observed with their parent drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel arylcyclohexylamine analogs of PCP, PCE, and ketamine are appearing on the illicit market, and abuse of these drugs poses risks for toxicities, including adverse neurocognitive effects. These studies demonstrate that the novel ACXs exhibit PCP-like abuse liability in the drug discrimination assay, elicit varied locomotor stimulant and lethal effects in mice, and induce psychosis-like neurocognitive effects in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Shaw
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Dylan R Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Lauren R Fitzgerald
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Theresa M Carbonaro
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Chad R Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
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Lai M, Fu D, Li X, Zhuang D, Wang M, Xu Z, Liu H, Shen H, Xu P, Zhou W. N-Isopropylbenzylamine-induced conditioned place preference, sensitization behaviour and self-administration in rodents. Addict Biol 2024; 29:e13370. [PMID: 38353028 PMCID: PMC10898833 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
N-Isopropylbenzylamine (N-ipb), a chain isomer of methamphetamine (METH) with similar physical properties, has been used as a substitute for METH in seized drug samples. However, the abuse potential of N-ipb remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the abuse potential of N-ipb in comparison to METH, by using conditioned place preference (CPP), locomotor sensitization and intravenous self-administration tests. The results showed that N-ipb at a dose of 3 mg·kg-1 significantly induced CPP in mice, which was comparable to the effect of METH at 1 mg·kg-1 . Either acute or repeated N-ipb injections (1 or 3 mg·kg-1 ) failed to raise the locomotor activity. However, acute treatment with 10 mg·kg-1 N-ipb elevated the locomotor activity compared with saline, while chronic injection of 10 mg·kg-1 N-ipb induced a delayed and attenuated sensitization compared with 1 mg·kg-1 METH. Rats could acquire N-ipb self-administration at a dose of 1 mg·kg-1 ·infusion-1 , and a typical inverted U-shaped dose-response curve was obtained for N-ipb. The mean dose of N-ipb that maintained the maximum response was greater than that of METH, indicating that N-ipb is less potent for reinforcement than METH. In the economic behavioural analysis, comparison of essential values derived from the demand elasticity revealed that N-ipb is less efficacy as a reinforcer than METH. The present data demonstrate that N-ipb functions as a reinforcer and has a potential for abuse. However, the potency of psychomotor stimulation and the reinforcing effectiveness of N-ipb are lower than those of METH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaojun Lai
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Dan Fu
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Xiangyu Li
- Office of China National Narcotics Control CommissionChina Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics ControlBeijingChina
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic CenterMinistry of Public SecurityBeijingChina
| | - Dingding Zhuang
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Majie Wang
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Zeming Xu
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Huifen Liu
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
| | - Haowei Shen
- Faculty of Physiology & Pharmacology, School of MedicineNingbo UniversityNingboChina
| | - Peng Xu
- Office of China National Narcotics Control CommissionChina Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics ControlBeijingChina
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic CenterMinistry of Public SecurityBeijingChina
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Department of PsychiatryAffiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo UniversityNingboChina
- Key Laboratory of Addiction Research of Zhejiang ProvinceNingboChina
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Yang FS, Lee HH, Tseng LP, Lee YH, Lan YS, Lee YC, Chou YC, Lin YC. Simultaneous Determination and Stability Analysis of Ten New Psychoactive Substances including Synthetic Cathinones, Phenethylamines, and Ketamine Substitutes in Urine Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Int J Anal Chem 2023; 2023:9895595. [PMID: 37492520 PMCID: PMC10365918 DOI: 10.1155/2023/9895595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Knowing the stability of drugs is important to ensure accurate and reliable results of drug concentrations. This study evaluated the stability of ten new psychoactive substances (NPSs) in urine and methanol/water at different storage temperatures. Quantitative analyses were performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Three replicates of each storage condition were analyzed at day 0 and after 7, 14-, 30-, 60-, and 90 days with storage at +25°C, +4°C, and -20°C. For each analyte, the percent difference at each time interval from day 0 was calculated for each storage condition. Para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA), para-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA), deschloroketamine (DCK), and 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (2-FDCK) were stable in urine, even when stored for 90-day periods at various temperatures. For synthetic cathinones, the concentrations declined over time at room temperature (+25°C) in urine but were relatively stable in methanol solvent with 0.1% formic acid. The significant degradation was found at +25°C, and the most excellent stability was shown by samples stored at -20°C. Phenethylamines (PMA and PMMA) and ketamine substitutes (DCK and 2-FDCK) were relatively more stable than synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, butylone, pentylone, ephylone, 4-MEAPP, and eutylone).
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-Shuo Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Hei-Hwa Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Li-Ping Tseng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Hung Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Sheng Lan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Cheng Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Cheng Chou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ching Lin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Doctoral Degree Program of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
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8
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Du H, Lai M, Zhuang D, Fu D, Zhou Y, Chen S, Wang F, Xu Z, Liu H, Wang Y, Xu P, Zhou W. A comparison of reinforcing effectiveness and drug-seeking reinstatement of 2-fluorodeschloroketamine and ketamine in self-administered rats. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:972798. [PMID: 36172262 PMCID: PMC9510746 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.972798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine (2F-DCK), a structural analog of ketamine, has been reported to cause impaired consciousness, agitation, and hallucination in abuse cases. It has similar reinforcing and discriminative effects as ketamine. However, the reinforcing efficacy and drug-seeking reinstatement of this analog have not been clarified to date. In this study, the effectiveness of 2F-DCK and ketamine was compared using a behavioral economics demand curve. The reinstatement of 2F-DCK- and ketamine-seeking behaviors induced by either conditioned cues or self-priming was also analyzed. Rats were intravenously self-administered 2F-DCK and ketamine at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion under a reinforcing schedule of fixed ratio 1 (FR1) with 4 h of daily training for at least 10 consecutive days. The elasticity coefficient parameter α and the essential value of the demand curve in the two groups were similar. Both groups of rats showed significant drug-seeking behavior induced either by conditional cues or by 2F-DCK and ketamine priming. Moreover, the α parameter was inversely related to the degree of reinstatement induced by cues or drug priming in both groups. In total, the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB) in the nucleus accumbens in both extinguished and reinstated rats were significantly lower than those in the control. The expression of total Akt, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) also decreased, but p-Akt, p-GSK-3β, p-mTOR, and p-ERK levels increased in both extinguished and reinstated rats. This is the first study to demonstrate that 2F-DCK has similar reinforcing efficacy, effectiveness, and post-withdrawal cravings as ketamine after repeated use. These data suggest that the downregulation of CREB/BDNF and the upregulation of the Akt/mTOR/GSK-3β signaling pathway in the nucleus accumbens may be involved in ketamine or 2F-DCK relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Du
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Miaojun Lai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Dingding Zhuang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Dan Fu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yiying Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Fangmin Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zemin Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Huifen Liu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Youmei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Peng Xu
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Wenhua Zhou
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