Pain is associated with heroin use over time in HIV-infected Russian drinkers

Late-stage borreliosis and substance abuse

Background

Infectious diseases can contribute to substance abuse. Here, a fatal case of borreliosis and substance abuse is reported. This patient had a history of multiple tick bites and increasing multisystem symptoms, yet diagnosis and treatment were delayed. He experimented with multiple substances including phencyclidine (PCP), an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist that opposes NMDA agonism caused by Borrelia infection. During PCP withdrawal, he committed one homicide, two assaults, and suicide.

Methods

Brain tissue was obtained from autopsy and stained for microglial activation and quinolinic acid (QA). Immunoflouresence (IFA) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) were used to identify the presence of pathogens in autopsy tissue.

Results

Autopsy tissue evaluation demonstrated Borrelia in the pancreas by IFA and heart by IFA and FISH. Activated microglia and QA were found in the brain, indicating neuroinflammation. It is postulated that PCP withdrawal may exacerbate symptoms produced by Borrelia-induced biochemical imbalances in the brain. This combination may have greatly increased his acute homicidal and suicidal risk. Patient databases also demonstrated the risk of homicide or suicide in patients diagnosed with borreliosis and confirmed multiple symptoms in these patients, including chronic pain, anxiety, and anhedonia.

Conclusions

Late-stage borreliosis is associated with multiple symptoms that may contribute to an increased risk of substance abuse and addictive disorders. More effective diagnosis and treatment of borreliosis, and attention to substance abuse potential may help reduce associated morbidity and mortality in patients with borreliosis, particularly in endemic areas.

Pilot RCT comparing low-dose naltrexone, gabapentin and placebo to reduce pain among people with HIV with alcohol problems

BACKGROUND

To estimate the effects on pain of two medications (low-dose naltrexone and gabapentin) compared to placebo among people with HIV (PWH) with heavy alcohol use and chronic pain.

METHODS

We conducted a pilot, randomized, double-blinded, 3-arm study of PWH with chronic pain and past-year heavy alcohol use in 2021. Participants were recruited in St. Petersburg, Russia, and randomized to receive daily low-dose naltrexone (4.5mg), gabapentin (up to 1800mg), or placebo. The two primary outcomes were change in self-reported pain severity and pain interference measured with the Brief Pain Inventory from baseline to 8 weeks.

RESULTS

Participants (N = 45, 15 in each arm) had the following baseline characteristics: 64% male; age 41 years (SD±7); mean 2 (SD±4) heavy drinking days in the past month and mean pain severity and interference were 3.2 (SD±1) and 3.0 (SD±2), respectively. Pain severity decreased for all three arms. Mean differences in change in pain severity for gabapentin vs. placebo, and naltrexone vs. placebo were -0.27 (95% confidence interval [CI] -1.76, 1.23; p = 0.73) and 0.88 (95% CI -0.7, 2.46; p = 0.55), respectively. Pain interference decreased for all three arms. Mean differences in change in pain interference for gabapentin vs. placebo, and naltrexone vs. placebo was 0.16 (95% CI -1.38, 1.71; p = 0.83) and 0.40 (95% CI -1.18, 1.99; p = 0.83), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Neither gabapentin nor low-dose naltrexone appeared to improve pain more than placebo among PWH with chronic pain and past-year heavy alcohol use.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT4052139).

Pilot study of tolerability and safety of opioid receptor antagonists as novel therapies for chronic pain among persons living with HIV with past year heavy drinking: a randomized controlled trial

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03278886.

Predictors of pain-related functional impairment among people living with HIV on long-term opioid therapy

People living with HIV (PLWH) have high levels of functional impairment due to pain, also called pain interference. Long-term opioid therapy (LTOT) is commonly prescribed for chronic pain among PLWH. We sought to better understand the predictors of pain interference, measured with the Brief Pain Inventory Interference subscale (BPI-I), among PLWH with chronic pain on LTOT. Using a prospective cohort of PLWH on LTOT we developed a model to identify predictors of increased pain interference over 1 year of follow up. Participants (n = 166) were 34% female, 72% African American with a median age of 55 years, and 40% had severe pain interference (BPI-I ≥ 7). In multivariable models, substance use disorder, depressive symptoms, PTSD symptoms, financial instability, and higher opioid doses were associated with increased pain interference. Measures of behavioral health and socioeconomic status had the most consistent association with pain interference. In contrast, the biomedical aspects of chronic pain and LTOT - comorbidities, duration of pain - were not predictive of pain interference. PLWH with chronic pain on LTOT with lower socioeconomic status and behavioral health symptoms have higher risk of pain interference. Addressing the social determinants of health and providing access to behavioral health services could improve patients' pain-related functional status.

Hazardous alcohol use is associated with greater pain interference and prescription opioid misuse among persons living with HIV and chronic pain

BACKGROUND

Alcohol use is common among persons living with HIV (PLWH), who often experience chronic pain, yet its impact on pain and opioid misuse is not fully characterized.

METHODS

We assessed associations between hazardous alcohol use and pain interference, defined as the self-reported impact of pain on daily living, pain severity, and risk for opioid misuse among PLWH who were on long-term opioid therapy (LTOT). A cohort was recruited as part of the "Targeting Effective Analgesia in Clinics for HIV" (TEACH) study, a randomized controlled trial to improve LTOT in HIV clinics. The Alcohol Use Disorders Test (AUDIT), Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) and the Current Opioid Misuse Measure (COMM) were administered at both baseline and 12-months. Linear mixed and generalized estimating equation models, incorporating data from both time points, evaluated associations between hazardous alcohol use (AUDIT ≥8) and: pain interference (0-10), pain severity (0-10), and opioid misuse risk (COMM ≥13), adjusting for age, gender, depressive symptoms, use of non-alcohol substances, time-point, and study-arm.

RESULTS

The sample was comprised of 166 participants, of which 31 (19%) reported hazardous alcohol use. The majority were male (65%), black (72%), and the mean age was 54 (range: 29-77). Hazardous alcohol use was significantly associated with higher pain interference (adjusted mean difference [AMD]: 1.02; 95% CI: 0.08, 1.96) and higher odds of opioid misuse risk (AOR: 3.73, 95% CI: 1.88-7.39), but not pain severity (AMD: 0.47, 95% CI: - 0.35, 1.29).

CONCLUSIONS

Hazardous alcohol use was associated with greater functional impairment in daily living from their pain and higher odds for prescription opioid misuse in this study of PLWH on LTOT. Providers should be attentive to alcohol use among PLWH who are prescribed opioids given associations with pain and opioid misuse.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02564341 (Intervention, September 30, 2015) and NCT02525731 (Patient Cohort, August 17, 2015). Both prospectively registered.

Decreasing risk among HIV patients on opioid therapy for chronic pain: Development of the TOWER intervention for HIV care providers

Many people with HIV (PWH) experience chronic pain that limits daily function and quality of life. PWH with chronic pain have commonly been prescribed opioids, sometimes for many years, and it is unclear if and how the management of these legacy patients should change in light of the current US opioid epidemic. Guidelines, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain (CDCG), provide recommendations for the management of such patients but have yet to be translated into easily implementable interventions; there is also a lack of strong evidence that adhering to these recommendations improves patient outcomes such as amount of opioid use and pain levels. Herein we describe the development and preliminary testing of a theory-based intervention, called TOWER (TOWard SafER Opioid Prescribing), designed to support HIV primary care providers in CDCG-adherent opioid prescribing practices with PWH who are already prescribed opioids for chronic pain. TOWER incorporates the content of the CDCG into the theoretical and operational framework of the Information Motivation and Behavioral Skills (IMB) model of health-related behavior. The development process included elicitation research and incorporation of feedback from providers and PWH; testing is being conducted via an adaptive feasibility clinical trial. The results of this process will form the basis of a large, well-powered clinical trial to test the effectiveness of TOWER in promoting CDCG-adherent opioid prescribing practices and improving outcomes for PWH with chronic pain.

Study protocol for the targeting effective analgesia in clinics for HIV (TEACH) study - a cluster randomized controlled trial and parallel cohort to increase guideline concordant care for long-term opioid therapy among people living with HIV

Background: People living with HIV (PLWH) frequently experience chronic pain and receive long-term opioid therapy (LTOT). Adherence to opioid prescribing guidelines among their providers is suboptimal. Objective: This paper describes the protocol of a cluster randomized trial, targeting effective analgesia in clinics for HIV (TEACH), which tested a collaborative care intervention to increase guideline-concordant care for LTOT among PLWH. Methods: HIV physicians and advanced practice providers (n = 41) were recruited from September 2015 to December 2016 from two HIV clinics in Boston and Atlanta. Patients receiving LTOT from participating providers were enrolled through a waiver of informed consent (n = 187). After baseline assessment, providers were randomized to the control group or the year-long TEACH intervention involving: (1) a nurse care manager and electronic registry to assist with patient management; (2) opioid education and academic detailing; and (3) facilitated access to addiction specialists. Randomization was stratified by site and LTOT patient volume. Primary outcomes (≥2 urine drug tests, early refills, provider satisfaction) were collected at 12 months. In parallel, PLWH receiving LTOT (n = 170) were recruited into a longitudinal cohort at both clinics and underwent baseline and 12-month assessments. Secondary outcomes were obtained through patient self-report among participants enrolled in both the cohort and the RCT (n = 117). Conclusions: TEACH will report the effects of an intervention on opioid prescribing for chronic pain on both provider and patient-level outcomes. The results may inform delivery of care for PLWH on LTOT for chronic pain at a time when opioid practices are being questioned in the US.

Williams AC. Psychosocial factors associated with persistent pain in people with HIV: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Chronic pain remains a prevalent and disabling problem for people living with HIV in the current antiretroviral treatment era. Psychosocial treatments may have promise for managing the impact of this pain. However, research is needed to identify psychosocial processes to target through such treatments. The current systematic review and meta-analysis examined the evidence for psychosocial factors associated with pain, disability, and quality of life in people living with HIV and persistent pain. Observational and experimental studies reporting on the association between one or more psychosocial factors and one or more pain-related variables in an adult sample of people living with HIV and pain were eligible. Two reviewers independently conducted eligibility screening, data extraction, and quality assessment. Forty-six studies were included in the review and 37 of these provided data for meta-analyses (12,493 participants). "Some" or "moderate" evidence supported an association between pain outcomes in people with HIV and the following psychosocial factors: depression, psychological distress, posttraumatic stress, drug abuse, sleep disturbance, reduced antiretroviral adherence, health care use, missed HIV clinic visits, unemployment, and protective psychological factors. Surprisingly, few studies examined protective psychological factors or social processes, such as stigma. There were few high-quality studies. These findings can inform future research and psychosocial treatment development in this area. Greater theoretical and empirical focus is needed to examine the role of protective factors and social processes on pain outcomes in this context. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42016036329).

Pain and Risk Behaviors Among HIV-Infected Persons in St. Petersburg, Russia

We analyzed baseline data from an observational cohort of HIV-infected ART-naïve patients in St. Petersburg, Russia to explore whether pain was associated with HIV risk behaviors. The primary outcomes were (1) unprotected vaginal or anal sex in the past 90 days and (2) sharing of needles or equipment in the past month. Secondary outcomes included: use of alcohol prior to sex, current injection drug use, number of unprotected sex and sharing episodes, and days injected in the past month. The main independent variable was any past week pain. Multivariable regression models were fit for outcomes. After adjustment, the association with unprotected sex was of borderline significance (AOR = 2.06; 95 % CI 0.98-4.36, p = 0.058); there was no significant association between any past week pain and sharing of needles/equipment (AOR = 1.52; 95 % CI 0.65-3.59, p = 0.33). Participants with pain had higher odds of reporting alcohol use prior to sex (AOR = 2.42; 95 % CI 1.10-5.28, p = 0.03).

Chronic pain disorders in HIV primary care: clinical characteristics and association with healthcare utilization

Chronic pain is common in HIV, but incompletely characterized, including its underlying etiologies, its effect on healthcare utilization, and the characteristics of affected patients in the HIV primary care setting. These data are needed to design and justify appropriate clinic-based pain management services. Using a clinical data warehouse, we analyzed one year of data from 638 patients receiving standard-of-care antiretroviral therapy in a large primary care HIV clinic, located in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. We found that 40% of patients carried one or more chronic pain diagnoses. The most common diagnoses were degenerative musculoskeletal disorders (eg, degenerative spinal disease and osteoarthritis), followed by neuropathic pain and headache disorders. Many patients (16%) had multiple chronic pain diagnoses. Women, older patients, and patients with greater burdens of medical illness, and psychiatric and substance use comorbidities were disproportionately represented among those with chronic pain diagnoses. Controlling for overall health status, HIV patients with chronic pain had greater healthcare utilization including emergency department visits and radiology procedures. In summary, our study demonstrates the high prevalence of chronic pain disorders in the primary care HIV clinic. Colocated interventions for chronic pain in this setting should not only focus on musculoskeletal pain but also account for complex multifaceted pain syndromes, and address the unique biopsychosocial features of this population. Furthermore, because chronic pain is prevalent in HIV and associated with increased healthcare utilization, developing clinic-based pain management programs could be cost-effective.

Chronic pain, craving, and illicit opioid use among patients receiving opioid agonist therapy

AIMS

In a sample of patients receiving opioid agonist therapy, we evaluated whether having chronic pain was associated with (a) craving for opioids and (b) illicit opioid use.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study of adults on buprenorphine or methadone maintenance recruited from an urban medical center, we examined any craving for opioids (primary dependent variable) in the past week and recent illicit opioid use (secondary dependent variable). Illicit opioid use was defined as a positive urine drug test (UDT) for opiates and chronic pain was defined as bodily pain that had been present for at least 3 months. Multivariable logistic regression models were fit for each outcome, adjusting for age, sex, and non-white race. Additional models adjusted for depression (PHQ-9) and anxiety (STAI).

RESULTS

The sample included 105 adults on methadone or buprenorphine maintenance. Mean age was 43.8 (SD ±9.4)years; 48% were female and 32% non-white; 19% were on methadone. Chronic pain was present in 68% of the sample, 51% reported craving opioids in the past week, and 16% had a positive UDT. Chronic pain was associated with 3-fold higher odds of reporting craving in the past week (aOR=3.10; 95% CI: 1.28-7.50, p-value=0.01). The relative odds for having a positive UDT were not statistically significant (aOR=2.52; 95% CI: 0.64-9.90, p=0.18).

CONCLUSION

In this sample of patients treated with opioid agonist therapy, those with chronic pain had higher odds of reporting craving for opioids. Chronic pain with associated opioid craving potentially places this population at risk for relapse.

Hepatitis C virus infection and pain sensitivity in patients on methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy for opioid use disorders

BACKGROUND

Patients with opioid use disorders on opioid agonist therapy (OAT) have lower pain tolerance compared to controls. While chronic viral infections such as HCV and HIV have been associated with chronic pain in this population, no studies have examined their impact on pain sensitivity.

METHODS

We recruited 106 adults (41 uninfected controls; 40 HCV mono-infected; and 25 HCV/HIV co-infected) on buprenorphine or methadone to assess whether HCV infection (with or without HIV) was associated with increased experimental pain sensitivity and self-reported pain. The primary outcome was cold pain tolerance assessed by cold-pressor test. Secondary outcomes were cold pain thresholds, wind-up ratios to repetitive mechanical stimulation (i.e., temporal summation) and acute and chronic pain. Multivariable regression models evaluated associations between viral infection status and outcomes, adjusting for other factors.

RESULTS

No significant differences were detected across groups for primary or secondary outcomes. Adjusted mean cold pain tolerance was 25.7 (uninfected controls) vs. 26.8 (HCV mono-infection) vs. 25.3 (HCV/HIV co-infection) seconds (global p-value=0.93). Current pain appeared more prevalent among HCV mono-infected (93%) compared to HCV/HIV co-infected participants (76%) and uninfected controls (80%), as did chronic pain (77% vs. 64% vs. 61%, respectively). However, differences were not statistically significant in multivariable models.

CONCLUSION

This study did not detect an association between HCV infection and increased sensitivity to pain among adults with and without HIV who were treated with buprenorphine or methadone for opioid use disorders. Results reinforce that pain and hyperalgesia are common problems in this population.

Heroin Use and HIV Disease Progression: Results from a Pilot Study of a Russian Cohort

Opioids have immunosuppressive properties, yet their impact on HIV disease progression remains unclear. Using longitudinal data from HIV-infected antiretroviral therapy-naïve Russian individuals (n = 77), we conducted a pilot study to estimate the effect of heroin use on HIV disease progression. Heroin use was categorized based on past 30 days self-reported use at baseline, 6 and 12 months as none, intermittent or persistent. We estimated the effect of heroin use on HIV disease progression, measured as change in CD4 count from baseline to 12 months, using multivariable linear regression. Those with intermittent (n = 21) and no heroin use (n = 39) experienced mean decreases in CD4 count from baseline to 12 months (-103 and -10 cells/mm(3), respectively; adjusted mean difference (AMD) -93; 95 % CI -245, 58). Those with persistent use (n = 17) showed a mean increase of 53 cells/mm(3) (AMD 63; 95 % CI -95, 220). Future studies exploring the effects of heroin withdrawal on HIV disease progression are warranted.

Pain is associated with risky drinking over time among HIV-infected persons in St. Petersburg, Russia

BACKGROUND

Pain is highly prevalent among persons with HIV. Alcohol may be used to "self-medicate" pain. This study examined the association between pain and risky alcohol use over time in a cohort of HIV-infected Russian drinkers.

METHODS

This secondary analysis utilized longitudinal data from a randomized trial of a behavioral intervention. Subjects included HIV-infected adults who reported past 6-month risky drinking and unprotected sex and were recruited from HIV and addiction treatment sites in St. Petersburg, Russia. The main independent variable was pain that at least moderately interfered with daily living. The primary outcome was past month risky drinking amounts based on NIAAA guidelines. General estimating equations (GEE) logistic regression models were used to calculate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the association between pain and risky drinking over time (i.e., baseline, 6 and 12 months), adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Baseline characteristics of participants (n=699) were mean age of 30 (SD ±5) years, 41% female, and 22% <9th grade education. Nearly one quarter (24%) had a CD4 cell count <200 cells/μl, and only 17% were on antiretroviral therapy. Nearly half (46%) reported at least moderate pain interference in the past month and 81% were drinking risky amounts. In adjusted longitudinal GEE models, pain was significantly associated with greater odds of reporting past month risky drinking (AOR = 1.34, 95% CI: 1.05-1.71, p value=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Among a cohort of HIV-infected Russian drinkers, pain that at least moderately interfered with daily living was associated with higher odds of reporting risky drinking amounts over time.