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Dou H, Wang M, Yin X, Feng L, Yang H. Can the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) be used as an effective sampler of fish diversity? Using molecular assessment of otter diet to survey fish communities. METABARCODING AND METAGENOMICS 2023. [DOI: 10.3897/mbmg.7.96733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The Eurasian otter Lutra lutra is a generalist carnivore that is widely distributed in many aquatic ecosystems. Based on its inherent attributes of opportunistic foraging behaviour and broad dietary range, it is naturally considered a potential sampler of the diversity of aquatic vertebrates. To test the ability and efficiency of otters as a diversity sampler, we used DNA metabarcoding to investigate the composition in vertebrates of the diet of otters that inhabit a forest stream area in northeast China. Twenty vertebrate prey taxa were detected in 98 otter spraints. Otter diet mainly comprised aquatic fishes (59.4%) and amphibians (39.0%). We also used traditional approaches to investigate fish communities at 60 sampling sites in the same area to determine the relationship between fish population composition in the environment and otter diet. The comparison revealed that 28 species of fish were distributed in this area, of which five are simultaneously detected in otter spraints. This indicates that molecular analysis of the diet of otters is not an ideal approach for investigating fish diversity, at least when using the 12SV5 primer pair. Based on a review of the available molecular research on otter diet, we conclude that the low species resolution may be due to the presence of many closely-related prey species in native habitats and lack of suitable barcodes. Considering the remarkable power of diet metabarcoding analysis in capturing elusive and rare species, it represents an approach that can compensate for the defects associated with fishing methods and we suggest that it can be used as an auxiliary means of measuring traditional fish diversity.
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Winter Dietary Analysis Reveals the Foraging Differences of Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa) in Different Regions of a Karst Mountainous Area. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040727. [PMID: 36830514 PMCID: PMC9952271 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are extremely common in southern China, but little study has been conducted regarding reporting the dietary habits of wild boars using high-throughput sequencing technology, especially in karst areas, due to the difficulty in obtaining stomach contents of wild boars. In our study, the stomach contents of 14 wild boars in southern China were analyzed by DNA metabarcoding. The results showed that there were 153 genera, 93 families, and 48 orders of plant food sources for wild boars. The main plant food component were Cissus, Dioscorea, Quercus, Actinidia, and Houttuynia. The most numerous taxa of animal food sources were Elaphodus, Amynthas, Chonaphe, Rattus, and Tanytarsus. It is noteworthy that Elaphodus cephalophus were detected in most of the stomach samples, accounting for a large portion of animal food sources. The results showed that there were significant differences in the diets of wild boars in different regions; however, no significant differences were noted between male and female wild boars. Our study revealed the dietary preference of wild boars under the special forest conditions in the mountainous area of southwest China, as well as the relationship between the dietary habits of wild boars and their habitats from the perspective of resource utilization, thus providing a key scientific basis for the prevention and control of wild boars, along with resource protection.
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Krag C, Havmøller LW, Swanepoel L, Van Zyl G, Møller PR, Havmøller RW. Impact of artificial waterholes on temporal partitioning in a carnivore guild: a comparison of activity patterns at artificial waterholes to roads and trails. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15253. [PMID: 37159833 PMCID: PMC10163872 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Temporal partitioning in large carnivores have previously been found to be one of the main factors enabling co-existence. While activity patterns have been investigated separately at artificial waterholes and e.g., game trails, simultaneous comparative analyses of activity patterns at artificial waterholes and game trails have not been attempted. In this study, camera trap data from Maremani Nature Reserve was used to investigate whether temporal partitioning existed in a carnivore guild of four species (spotted hyena, leopard, brown hyena and African wild dog). Specifically, we investigated temporal partitioning at artificial waterholes and on roads and trails an average of 1,412 m away from an artificial waterhole. Activity patterns for the same species at artificial waterholes and roads/game trails were also compared. We found no significant differences in temporal activity between species at artificial waterholes. Temporal partitioning on game trails and roads was only found between spotted hyena (nocturnal) and African wild dog (crepuscular). Between nocturnal species (spotted hyena and leopard) no temporal partitioning was exhibited. Only African wild dog exhibited significantly different activity patterns at waterholes and roads/game trails. This indicates artificial waterholes may be a location for conflict in a carnivore guild. Our study highlights the impact of anthropogenic landscape changes and management decisions on the temporal axis of carnivores. More data on activity patterns at natural water sources such as ephemeral pans are needed to properly assess the effect of artificial waterholes on temporal partitioning in a carnivore guild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Krag
- Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Linnea Worsøe Havmøller
- Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lourens Swanepoel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, School of Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa
- DNRF-SARChI Chair in Biodiversity Value and Change, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Gigi Van Zyl
- Maremani Game Reserve, Musina, Limpopo Province, South Africa
| | - Peter Rask Møller
- Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rasmus Worsøe Havmøller
- Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Migration, Max Planck Institute for Animal Behaviour, Radolfzell am Bodensee, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
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Kiffner C, Kioko J, Butynski TM, de Jong YA, Zinner D. Population dynamics of the Manyara monkey ( Cercopithecus mitis manyaraensis) and vervet monkey ( Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. Primate Biol 2022; 9:33-43. [PMID: 36267696 PMCID: PMC9562685 DOI: 10.5194/pb-9-33-2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Estimating population densities and their trends over time is essential for understanding primate ecology and for guiding conservation efforts. From 2011 through to 2019, we counted two guenon species during seasonal road transect surveys in Lake Manyara National Park: the Tanzania-endemic Manyara monkey Cercopithecus mitis manyaraensis (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN, Red List category of "endangered") and the vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus (Red List category of "least concern"). To account for imperfect detectability, we analysed the data in a line distance sampling framework, fitted species-specific detection functions, and subsequently estimated seasonal densities. To test for seasonal differences and yearly trends in the species-specific density estimates, we fitted generalized additive models. Seasonal point density estimates fluctuated considerably during the 9 years (2011-2019) of our study, ranging from 3 to 29 individuals km - 2 for Manyara monkeys and from 19 to 83 individuals km - 2 for vervet monkeys. Densities of both taxa did not differ seasonally, and we did not detect marked directional population trends. Our study illustrates the utility and limitations of line distance sampling for long-term primate monitoring. Beyond informing primate ecology and management, our results highlight the conservation importance of Lake Manyara National Park for primate conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Kiffner
- Center for Wildlife Management Studies, The School for Field Studies, 23601, Karatu, Tanzania,Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck
Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany,Human–Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence in Agricultural Landscapes Group,
Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), 15374 Müncheberg, Germany
| | - John Kioko
- Center for Wildlife Management Studies, The School for Field Studies, 23601, Karatu, Tanzania
| | - Thomas M. Butynski
- Eastern Africa Primate Diversity and Conservation Program, Nanyuki
10400, Kenya
| | - Yvonne A. de Jong
- Eastern Africa Primate Diversity and Conservation Program, Nanyuki
10400, Kenya
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, 37077 Göttingen, Germany,Department of Primate Cognition, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, 37083
Göttingen, Germany,Leibniz Science Campus Primate Cognition, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Coyotes in New York City Carry Variable Genomic Dog Ancestry and Influence Their Interactions with Humans. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13091661. [PMID: 36140828 PMCID: PMC9498729 DOI: 10.3390/genes13091661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Coyotes are ubiquitous on the North American landscape as a result of their recent expansion across the continent. They have been documented in the heart of some of the most urbanized cities, such as Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York City. Here, we explored the genomic composition of 16 coyotes in the New York metropolitan area to investigate genomic demography and admixture for urban-dwelling canids in Queens County, New York. We identified moderate-to-high estimates of relatedness among coyotes living in Queens (r = 0.0–0.5) and adjacent neighborhoods, suggestive of a relatively small population. Although we found low background levels of domestic-dog ancestry across most coyotes in our sample (5%), we identified a male suspected to be a first-generation coyote–dog hybrid with 46% dog ancestry, as well as his two putative backcrossed offspring that carried approximately 25% dog ancestry. The male coyote–dog hybrid and one backcrossed offspring each carried two transposable element insertions that are associated with human-directed hypersociability in dogs and gray wolves. An additional, unrelated coyote with little dog ancestry also carried two of these insertions. These genetic patterns suggest that gene flow from domestic dogs may become an increasingly important consideration as coyotes continue to inhabit metropolitan regions.
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Zaman M, Roberts NJ, Zhu M, Vitekere K, Wang M, Jiang G. Temporal activity patterns of North China leopards and their prey in response to moonlight and habitat factors. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9032. [PMID: 35784060 PMCID: PMC9219109 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The nocturnal activities of predators and prey are influenced by several factors, including physiological adaptations, habitat quality and, we suspect, corresponds to changes in brightness of moonlight according to moon phase. In this study, we used a dataset from 102 camera traps to explore which factors are related to the activity pattern of North China leopards (Panthera pardus japonensis) in Shanxi Tieqiaoshan Provincial Nature Reserve (TPNR), China. We found that nocturnal activities of leopards were irregular during four different lunar phases, and while not strictly lunar philic or lunar phobic, their temporal activity was highest during the brighter moon phases (especially the last quarter) and lower during the new moon phase. On the contrary, roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) exhibited lunar philic activity, while wild boar (Sus scrofa) and tolai hare (Lepus tolai) were evidently lunar phobic, with high and low temporal activity during the full moon, respectively. In terms of temporal overlap, there was positive overlap between leopards and their prey species, including roe deer and tolai hare, while leopard activity did not dip to the same low level of wild boar during the full moon phase. Human activities also more influenced the temporal activity of leopards and wild boar than other species investigated. Generally, our results suggested that besides moonlight risk index (MRI), cloud cover and season have diverse effects on leopard and prey nocturnal activity. Finally, distinct daytime and nighttime habitats were identified, with leopards, wild boar, and tolai hare all using lower elevations at night and higher elevations during the day, while leopards and roe deer were closer to secondary roads during the day than at night.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Zaman
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
| | - Nathan James Roberts
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
| | - Mengyan Zhu
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
- College of Life Science Yanan University Yanan China
| | - Kasereka Vitekere
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
- University of Goma Goma Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Meng Wang
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
- Chengdu Zoo Chengdu China
| | - Guangshun Jiang
- Feline Research Center of China National Forestry and Grassland Administration, College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin China
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Spatio-temporal overlap of leopard and prey species in the foothills of Shiwalik, Himalaya. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-022-01568-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Kiffner C, Paciência FMD, Henrich G, Kaitila R, Chuma IS, Mbaryo P, Knauf S, Kioko J, Zinner D. Road-based line distance surveys overestimate densities of olive baboons. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263314. [PMID: 35108346 PMCID: PMC8809570 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Estimating population density and population dynamics is essential for understanding primate ecology and relies on robust methods. While distance sampling theory provides a robust framework for estimating animal abundance, implementing a constrained, non-systematic transect design could bias density estimates. Here, we assessed potential bias associated with line distance sampling surveys along roads based on a case study with olive baboons (Papio anubis) in Lake Manyara National Park (Tanzania). This was achieved by comparing density estimates of olive baboons derived from road transect surveys with density estimates derived from estimating the maximum number of social groups (via sleeping site counts) and multiplying this metric with the estimated average size of social groups. From 2011 to 2019, we counted olive baboons along road transects, estimated survey-specific densities in a distance sampling framework, and assessed temporal population trends. Based on the fitted half-normal detection function, the mean density was 132.5 baboons km-2 (95% CI: 110.4-159.2), however, detection models did not fit well due to heaping of sightings on and near the transects. Density estimates were associated with relatively wide confidence intervals that were mostly caused by encounter rate variance. Based on a generalized additive model, baboon densities were greater during the rainy seasons compared to the dry seasons but did not show marked annual trends. Compared to estimates derived from the alternative method (sleeping site survey), distance sampling along road transects overestimated the abundance of baboons more than threefold. Possibly, this overestimation was caused by the preferred use of roads by baboons. While being a frequently used technique (due to its relative ease of implementation compared to spatially randomized survey techniques), inferring population density of baboons (and possibly other species) based on road transects should be treated with caution. Beyond these methodological concerns and considering only the most conservative estimates, baboon densities in LMNP are among the highest across their geographic distribution range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Kiffner
- The School For Field Studies, Center For Wildlife Management Studies, Karatu, Tanzania
- Department of Human Behavior, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Ecology and Culture, Leipzig, Germany
- Junior Research Group Human‐Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg, Germany
| | - Filipa M. D. Paciência
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, Germany Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Grace Henrich
- Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York State, United States of America
| | - Rehema Kaitila
- Tanzania National Parks, Conservation Science Unit (Veterinary), Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Idrissa S. Chuma
- Tanzania National Parks, Conservation Science Unit (Veterinary), Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Pay Mbaryo
- Tanzania National Parks, Conservation Science Unit (Veterinary), Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Sascha Knauf
- Institute of International Animal Health / One Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
- Infection Biology Unit, Germany Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - John Kioko
- The School For Field Studies, Center For Wildlife Management Studies, Karatu, Tanzania
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, Germany Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Primate Cognition, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Göttingen, Germany
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Davis RS, Yarnell RW, Gentle LK, Uzal A, Mgoola WO, Stone EL. Prey availability and intraguild competition regulate the spatiotemporal dynamics of a modified large carnivore guild. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:7890-7904. [PMID: 34188859 PMCID: PMC8216965 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective conservation management requires an understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics driving large carnivore density and resource partitioning. In African ecosystems, reduced prey populations and the loss of competing guild members, most notably lion (Panthera leo), are expected to increase the levels of competition between remaining carnivores. Consequently, intraguild relationships can be altered, potentially increasing the risk of further population decline. Kasungu National Park (KNP), Malawi, is an example of a conservation area that has experienced large-scale reductions in both carnivore and prey populations, leaving a resident large carnivore guild consisting of only leopard (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Here, we quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of these two species and their degree of association, using a combination of co-detection modeling, time-to-event analyses, and temporal activity patterns from camera trap data. The detection of leopard and spotted hyena was significantly associated with the detection of preferred prey and competing carnivores, increasing the likelihood of species interaction. Temporal analyses revealed sex-specific differences in temporal activity, with female leopard activity patterns significantly different to those of spotted hyena and male conspecifics. Heightened risk of interaction with interspecific competitors and male conspecifics may have resulted in female leopards adopting temporal avoidance strategies to facilitate coexistence. Female leopard behavioral adaptations increased overall activity levels and diurnal activity rates, with potential consequences for overall fitness and exposure to sources of mortality. As both species are currently found at low densities in KNP, increased risk of competitive interactions, which infer a reduction in fitness, could have significant implications for large carnivore demographics. The protection of remaining prey populations is necessary to mitigate interspecific competition and avoid further alterations to the large carnivore guild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S. Davis
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental SciencesNottingham Trent UniversityBrackenhurst CampusSouthwellUK
- Conservation Research Africa & Carnivore Research MalawiLilongweMalawi
| | - Richard W. Yarnell
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental SciencesNottingham Trent UniversityBrackenhurst CampusSouthwellUK
| | - Louise K. Gentle
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental SciencesNottingham Trent UniversityBrackenhurst CampusSouthwellUK
| | - Antonio Uzal
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental SciencesNottingham Trent UniversityBrackenhurst CampusSouthwellUK
| | | | - Emma L. Stone
- Conservation Research Africa & Carnivore Research MalawiLilongweMalawi
- Department of Applied SciencesUniversity of the West of EnglandBristolUK
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Ingala MR, Simmons NB, Wultsch C, Krampis K, Provost KL, Perkins SL. Molecular diet analysis of neotropical bats based on fecal DNA metabarcoding. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:7474-7491. [PMID: 34188828 PMCID: PMC8216975 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bat communities in the Neotropics are some of the most speciose assemblages of mammals on Earth, with regions supporting more than 100 sympatric species with diverse feeding ecologies. Because bats are small, nocturnal, and volant, it is difficult to directly observe their feeding habits, which has resulted in their classification into broadly defined dietary guilds (e.g., insectivores, carnivores, and frugivores). Apart from these broad guilds, we lack detailed dietary information for many species and therefore have only a limited understanding of interaction networks linking bats and their diet items. In this study, we used DNA metabarcoding of plants, arthropods, and vertebrates to investigate the diets of 25 bat species from the tropical dry forests of Lamanai, Belize. Our results report some of the first detection of diet items for the focal bat taxa, adding rich and novel natural history information to the field of bat ecology. This study represents a comprehensive first effort to apply DNA metabarcoding to bat diets at Lamanai and provides a useful methodological framework for future studies testing hypotheses about coexistence and niche differentiation in the context of modern high-throughput molecular data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R. Ingala
- Division of MammalsDepartment of Vertebrate ZoologyNational Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionWashingtonDCUSA
- Richard Gilder Graduate SchoolThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate ZoologyThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Division of Invertebrate ZoologyThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Nancy B. Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate ZoologyThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Claudia Wultsch
- Sackler Institute for Comparative GenomicsThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Bioinformatics and Computational Genomics LaboratoryHunter CollegeCity University of New YorkNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Konstantinos Krampis
- Bioinformatics and Computational Genomics LaboratoryHunter CollegeCity University of New YorkNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Biological SciencesHunter CollegeCity University of New YorkNew YorkNYUSA
- Institute of Computational BiomedicineWeill Cornell Medical CollegeNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Kaiya L. Provost
- Richard Gilder Graduate SchoolThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of OrnithologyThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal BiologyThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
| | - Susan L. Perkins
- Division of Invertebrate ZoologyThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- Sackler Institute for Comparative GenomicsThe American Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
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