Association of maternal scaffolding to maternal education and cognition in toddlers born preterm and full term

Exploring the role of "in the moment" and global caregiver and child factors in caregiver questioning during shared book viewing

Questions of high (vs. low) cognitive demand (CD), which encourage children to engage in abstract or critical thinking (e.g., problem solve, reason about cause-and-effect relations, make inferences), may drive relations between children's language exposure and early skills. The present study adopted a micro-analytic approach to examine caregivers' high-CD questioning with their preschool-aged children while viewing a wordless picture book (n = 121) and "in the moment" (e.g., interaction time, child responses) and global factors (e.g., caregiver education). The probability of caregivers' high-CD questioning increased with interaction time and caregiver education. Post-hoc exploratory analyses revealed that the relation between children's responses and caregivers' high-CD questioning depended on caregivers' perceptions of children's vocabulary skills. Specifically, the probability of caregivers' subsequent high-CD questioning was greater if their child did not respond previously and if caregivers perceived them to have high vocabulary skills. In contrast, caregivers' questioning remained relatively constant for responsive children across different vocabulary skills. Thus, caregivers may employ certain types of input during brief, informal learning interactions with their children by considering their own and their child's propensities and micro-level changes that occur during their conversations.

Maternal verbal scaffolding: association with higher language skills for 20-month-old children with prenatal polysubstance exposure

BACKGROUND

The number of children with prenatal polysubstance exposure is increasing. Supportive mother-child interaction is a protective factor, which can ameliorate adverse effects of prenatal polysubstance exposure on developmental outcomes.

AIM

To examine the role of maternal verbal scaffolding on cognitive and language development in children with prenatal polysubstance exposure.

STUDY DESIGN

Pregnant women were recruited, and we prospectively followed mother-child dyads to 20 months of age. This analysis included 66 dyads (33 healthy controls and 33 with prenatal polysubstance exposure). Multivariable linear regression modelling was used to examine the cross-sectional association between maternal scaffolding and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) score, as well as an interaction between the study group and scaffolding score.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The BSID-III cognitive and language score was used. Videotaped mother-child play was coded to obtain a maternal verbal scaffolding score. Effect sizes were measured using average differences in scores between groups.

RESULTS

There was no evidence of an association between study group and maternal scaffolding scores. Children in the polysubstance exposure group had lower cognitive and language scores compared to controls, but this association was not statistically significant after controlling for maternal education. Maternal scaffolding was predictive of language scores, with scores increasing by 1.24 points on average (95% CI: 0.42, 2.06) for every 1-point increase in scaffolding score after adjustment for covariates. There was no evidence of a study group-by-scaffolding interaction with respect to the language or cognitive scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal scaffolding during play was associated with language development in children with and without prenatal polysubstance exposure.

Spatial Thinking in Term and Preterm-Born Preschoolers: Relations to Parent-Child Speech and Gesture

Spatial skills predict important life outcomes, such as mathematical achievement or entrance into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Children significantly vary in their spatial performance even before they enter formal schooling. One correlate of children's spatial performance is the spatial language they produce and hear from others, such as their parents. Because the emphasis has been on spatial language, less is known about the role of hand gestures in children's spatial development. Some children are more likely to fall behind in their spatial skills than others. Children born premature (gestational age <37 weeks) constitute such a risk group. Here, we compared performance of term and preterm-born children on two non-verbal spatial tasks-mental transformation and block design. We also examined relations of children's performance on these tasks to parental spatial language and gesture input and their own production of spatial language and gesture during an independent puzzle play interaction. We found that while term and preterm-born children (n = 40) as a group did not differ in the mental transformation or block design performance, children varied widely in their performance within each group. The variability in mental transformation scores was predicted by both a subset of spatial words (what aspects of spatial information) and all spatial gestures children produced. Children's spatial language and gesture were in turn related to their parents' spatial language and gesture. Parental spatial language and gesture had an indirect relation on children's mental transformation, but not block design, scores via children's spatial language, and gesture use. Overall, results highlight the unique contributions of speech and gesture in communicating spatial information and predicting children's spatial performance.

Construct validation of enunciative signs of language acquisition for the first year of life

PURPOSE

To perform the construct validation of enunciative signs of language acquisition for children aged 3 to 12 months.

METHOD

The study sample consisted of 94 mother-infant dyads for the analysis of Phase 1 (3-6 months) signs and 61 dyads for the analysis of Phase 2 (7-12 months) signs. Data collection was performed through analysis of the interaction between mothers and infants in play situation recorded in 15-min videos in the predicted phases, with attribution of value types of present or absent to each sign analyzed. The collected data were organized on a spreadsheet and then converted to computer applications for factor analysis.

RESULTS

Factor analysis indicated the existence of two factors named "mother" and "infant" both for Phase 1 signs (explaining 71.9% of the variation) - with three signs relevant for the "infant" factor and one sign relevant for the "mother" factor, and for Phase 2 signs (explaining 74.4% of the variation) - with one sign relevant for the "infant" factor and one sign relevant for the "mother" factor.

CONCLUSION

Construct validation showed that one "mother" factor and one "infant" factor were able to distinguish between at-risk and not-at-risk groups in both phases analyzed, which suggests that the absence of these signs may pose risks to language acquisition.

An investigation into maternal use of telegraphic input to children with Down syndrome

Maternal input influences language development in children with Down syndrome (DS) and typical development (TD). Telegraphic input, or simplified input violating English grammatical rules, is controversial in speech-language pathology, yet no research to date has investigated whether mothers of children with DS use telegraphic input. This study investigated the quality of linguistic input to children with DS compared to age-matched children with TD, and the relationship between maternal input and child language abilities. Mothers of children with DS simplified their input in multiple ways, by using a lower lexical diversity, shorter utterances, and more telegraphic input compared to mothers of children with TD. Telegraphic input was not significantly correlated with other aspects of maternal input or child language abilities. Since children with DS demonstrate specific deficits in grammatical compared to lexical abilities, future work should investigate the long-term influence of maternal telegraphic input on language development in children with DS.

Language nutrition for language health in children with disorders: a scoping review

The quantity and quality of child-directed speech-language nutrition-provided to typically-developing children is associated with language outcomes-language health. Limited information is available about child-directed speech to children at biological risk of language impairments. We conducted a scoping review on caregiver child-directed speech for children with three clinical conditions associated with language impairments-preterm birth, intellectual disability, and autism-addressing three questions: (1) How does child-directed speech to these children differ from speech to typically-developing children? (2) What are the associations between child-directed speech and child language outcomes? (3) How convincing are intervention studies that aim to improve child-directed speech and thereby facilitate children's language development? We identified 635 potential studies and reviewed 57 meeting study criteria. Child-directed speech to children with all conditions was comparable to speech to language-matched children; caregivers were more directive toward children with disorders. Most associations between child-directed speech and outcomes were positive. However, several interventions had minimal effects on child language. Trials with large samples, intensive interventions, and multiple data sources are needed to evaluate child-directed speech as a means to prevent language impairment. Clinicians should counsel caregivers to use high quality child-directed speech and responsive communication styles with children with these conditions.

“How Do We Solve This Task?”

Abstract. The study examines (a) whether gestational age relates to parental scaffolding (SCA), when controlling for child cognitive development, parenting stress, and socioeconomic status, and (b) how SCA links to parent–child problem-solving performance. The sample included 142 parents with a full-term or preterm 2-year-old toddler (corrected age). Parents’ SCA during one of two (randomly assigned) problem-solving tasks was rated on five scales (use of SCA means, cognitive support, metacognitive support, transfer or responsibility, contingency management). The results suggest that gestational age is positively related to parents’ transfer of responsibility and metacognitive support. The effects decrease, however, once covariates are controlled for. Regarding the problem-solving performance, direct effects were observed from parents’ cognitive and metacognitive support, transfer of responsibility, and contingency management. The data also confirm an indirect effect of parents’ use of SCA means on the problem-solving performance, partially mediated via parents’ cognitive support. Implications for the design of interventions are discussed.

Association of Language Skills with Other Developmental Domains in Extremely, Very, and Moderately Preterm Children: EPIPAGE 2 Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

To analyze language skills in children born at 24-34 weeks of gestation at 2 years of corrected age and the association between language and other developmental domains.

STUDY DESIGN

We included 2424 children (64% of the eligible population) from the French population-based EPIPAGE 2 cohort study. At 2 years' corrected age, children were screened with the French short version of the MacArthur-Bates Communication Developmental Inventories and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire completed by parents.

RESULTS

Small lexicon size, <10th percentile of the calibration sample (ie, 28 words in a list of 100) was observed in 135 of 300 children (45%) born at 23-26 weeks, 484 of 1513 (32%) born at 27-31 weeks, and 165 of 611 (27%) born at 32-34 weeks of gestation. Small lexicon size was associated with 2 other language measures: word combination use and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire communication domain score. It was also significantly associated with the Ages and Stages Questionnaire score below the threshold in the other developmental domains (gross motor function, fine motor function, problem solving skills, and personal social skills) for all gestational age groups, after adjustment for potential confounders. Overall, 46% of children with a small lexicon size had ≥1 of these domains below the threshold, as compared with only 22% of children without a small lexicon size.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the usefulness of the MacArthur-Bates Communication Developmental Inventories in preterm children, especially those who do not participate in specialized follow-up. A small lexicon size points to developmental difficulties in language and increased risk for other developmental and neurobehavioral functions.

A complementaridade entre sinais PREAUT e IRDI na análise de risco psíquico aos nove meses e sua relação com idade gestacional

RESUMO Objetivo Comparar o nível de concordância estatística entre os Sinais PREAUT e os Indicadores Clínicos de Risco/Referência ao Desenvolvimento Infantil (IRDI) na identificação de risco e analisar a frequência de risco psíquico considerando a variável idade gestacional. Método A amostra total contou com 80 bebês, sendo 55 bebês nascidos a termo e 25 bebês nascidos pré-termo, considerando a idade corrigida. Foram excluídos todos os bebês que apresentaram qualquer espécie de síndrome genética, lesões neurológicas ou déficits sensoriais. O IRDI e os Sinais PREAUT, além de uma entrevista semiestruturada foram utilizados como instrumento de coleta de dados. A análise estatística avaliou o grau de concordância entre os Sinais PREAUT e o IRDI a partir do coeficiente de concordância kappa. Resultados Foi observada uma concordância perfeita na identificação de sujeitos em ambos protocolos aos nove meses, embora essa identificação se dê por sinais fenomênicos distintos. A frequência de risco psíquico em bebês prematuros foi superior (24%) à frequência em bebês nascidos a termo (20%). O risco psíquico foi considerável na amostra estudada aos nove meses (21,25%). Conclusão Houve uma concordância total entre ambos os protocolos na identificação de risco psíquico aos nove meses, cuja frequência foi importante na amostra estudada.

Maternal Responsiveness to Gestures in Children With Down Syndrome

PURPOSE

This study compared gesture use in young children with Down syndrome (DS) and typical development (TD) as well as how mothers respond to child gestures based on child age and diagnosis.

METHOD

Twenty-two mother-child dyads with DS and 22 mother-child dyads with TD participated. The child participants were between 22 and 63 months and were matched on chronological age. We coded child gesture use and whether mothers recoded child gestures (i.e., provided a verbal translation) during naturalistic interactions.

RESULTS

The children with DS used more gestures than peers with TD. After controlling for expressive language ability, the two groups were not significantly different on child gesture use. Regardless of child diagnosis, mothers recoded approximately the same percentage of child gestures. There was a significant interaction between child diagnosis and child age when predicting the percentage of maternal gesture recodes; mothers of children with DS did not demonstrate differences in the percentage of maternal gesture recodes based on child age, but there was a negative relationship between the percentage of maternal gesture recodes and child age for the children with TD.

CONCLUSIONS

Young children with DS gesture more than chronological age-matched children with TD, therefore providing numerous opportunities for caregivers to recode child gestures and support language development. Early intervention should focus on increasing parent responsiveness to child gestures earlier in life in order to provide additional word-learning opportunities for children with DS.

Training of parental scaffolding in high-socio-economic status families: How do parents of full- and preterm-born toddlers benefit?

BACKGROUND

Preterm children have an increased risk regarding self-regulation development. Given the strong link between parenting behaviour (i.e., scaffolding and sensitivity) and children's self-regulation, parental training presents a promising way to counteract the negative consequences of preterm birth.

AIMS

We explored the effectiveness of parental training by comparing a basic scaffolding training and a combined scaffolding/sensitivity training to an active treatment-control group (stress management). Basic and combined treatments should increase parents' domain-specific self-efficacy (DSSE) and beliefs on parental co-regulation and the promotion of learning (BCL) more than the control treatment should. No such differences were expected for parents' domain-general self-efficacy (DGSE). We examined whether parents of preterm and full-term children benefitted equally from training conditions.

SAMPLE(S)

A total of 87 parents of full-term and 35 parents of preterm toddlers (24-36 months of age, corrected for prematurity) participated.

METHODS

Based on a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test follow-up design, parents were randomly assigned to treatments. A multimethod approach was applied, including self-report, parent-child interactions, and standardized behavioural tasks. The presented study is limited to questionnaire data on parents' DGSE, DSSE, and BCL.

RESULTS

An overall increase resulted from pre- to post-test and/or follow-up. Parents' BCL changed significantly stronger in the combined training than in the control group. Parents of preterm and full-term children benefitted equally from basic and combined training.

CONCLUSIONS

The combined training enhanced BCL among parents of full-term and preterm children the most. If such training also yields improvement on the behavioural level, this finding will advance preterm aftercare.

Spontaneous language of preterm children aged 4 and 5 years

ABSTRACT Purposes: to evaluate spontaneous language development through the Mean Length of Utterance in words (MLU-w) of children with gestational age between 28 and 36 weeks. This research also aims to study if the gestational age, birth weight, gender, and parents’ level of formal education can influence that measurement. Methods: nineteen premature children (9 males, 10 females), in the age range 4-5 years old, enrolled on Lisbon area kindergartens, and considered as having typical development, participated in this research. Spontaneous speech of each child was recorded for 30 minutes and transcribed afterwards. Results: mean values of MLU-w of Portuguese premature children were significantly lower than those with typical development. A positive and significant correlation between the gestational age and the birth weight with the MLU-w was also found. The gender of the children and the parents’ level of formal education showed no influence on the results. Conclusion: these results reinforce the need to identify, on these children, possible deficits, in order to prevent negative impacts in school education, and stimulate their psychosocial development.

Prematuridade, Funções Executivas e Qualidade dos Cuidados Parentais: Revisão Sistemática de Literatura

RESUMO Este artigo de revisão visa contextualizar o desenvolvimento das funções executivas (FE) em crianças prematuras, com especial atenção para o efeito dos cuidados parentais. As principais bases eletrônicas foram utilizadas para essa revisão: 31 estudos originais, duas meta-análises, uma meta-síntese e dois artigos de revisão foram identificados. Concluiu-se que as crianças prematuras têm maior risco de disfunção executiva global, sendo a qualidade dos cuidados parentais fundamentais para a modulação das FE, nomeadamente no que concerne às variáveis socioemocionais da interação, como a sensibilidadematerna. Salientam-se ainda as principais limitações dos estudos analisados e apontam-se recomendações para futura investigação sobre os efeitos dos cuidados parentais no desenvolvimento de FE em crianças prematuras.

Validação de conteúdo: clareza/pertinência, fidedignidade e consistência interna de sinais enunciativos de aquisição da linguagem

RESUMO Objetivo Analisar os resultados da validação de construção de sinais enunciativos de aquisição da linguagem para crianças de 3 a 12 meses. Método Os sinais foram construídos a partir de mecanismos enunciativos e experiência clínica com distúrbios de linguagem e submetidos ao julgamento, quanto à clareza e à pertinência, por seis doutores com conhecimento em psicolinguística e clínica de linguagem. A validação de fidedignidade contou com dois juízes para aplicação dos instrumentos em vídeos de 20% da amostra total das díades mãe-bebê com o método entre avaliadores. O método Consistência Interna foi aplicado no total da amostra constituída de 94 díades mãe-bebê para os sinais da Fase 1 (3 a 6 meses) e de 61 díades mãe-bebê para os sinais da Fase 2 (7 a 12 meses). A coleta de dados ocorreu por meio da interação mãe-bebê feita com base em filmagens e aplicação dos sinais conforme a faixa etária da criança. Os dados foram organizados em planilha eletrônica e convertidos para aplicativos computacionais para análise estatística. Resultados Os julgamentos quanto à clareza/pertinência mantiveram os instrumentos sem modificações. O teste de fidedignidade apontou uma concordância entre os juízes quase perfeita (0,8 ≤ Kappa ≥ 1,0), apenas o item 2 da Fase 1 apresentou uma concordância substancial (0,6 ≤ Kappa ≥ 0,79). A consistência interna para a Fase 1 apresentou alpha = 0,84 e, para a Fase 2, alpha = 0,74, demonstrando confiabilidade nos instrumentos. Conclusão Os resultados sugerem adequação quanto à validação de conteúdo dos sinais criados para ambas as faixas etárias.

Effects of prematurity on language acquisition and auditory maturation: a systematic review

Purpose

To verify which damages prematurity causes to hearing and language.

Research strategies

We used the decriptors language/linguagem, hearing/audição, prematurity/prematuridade in databases LILACS, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library and Scielo.

Selection criteria

randomized controlled trials, non-randomized intervention studies and descriptive studies (cross-sectional, cohort, case-control projects).

Data analysis

The articles were assessed independently by two authors according to the selection criteria. Twenty-six studies were selected, of which seven were published in Brazil and 19 in international literature.

Results

Nineteen studies comparing full-term and preterm infants. Two of the studies made comparisons between premature infants small for gestational age and appropriate for gestational age. In four studies, the sample consisted of children with extreme prematurity, while other studies have been conducted in children with severe and moderate prematurity. To assess hearing, these studies used otoacoustic emissions, brainstem evoked potentials, tympanometry, auditory steady-state response and visual reinforcement audiometry. For language assessment, most of the articles used the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development. Most studies reviewed observed that prematurity is directly or indirectly related to the acquisition of auditory and language abilities early in life.

Conclusion

Thus, it could be seen that prematurity, as well as aspects related to it (gestational age, low weight at birth and complications at birth), affect maturation of the central auditory pathway and may cause negative effects on language acquisition.

Parenting in infancy and self-regulation in preschool: an investigation of the role of attachment history

Parenting and attachment are critical in the emergence of self-regulation (SR) in preschool. However, most studies use general indexes of parenting quality, failing to explore the unique contributions of sensitivity and home quality to SR. Further, the nature of the interplay between parenting and attachment history is not well understood. Using a sample of 938 children from The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, a series of structural equation models were fit to determine whether sensitivity and home quality concurrently predicted SR at 54 months, and whether attachment mediated or moderated these pathways. Results suggest that both sensitivity and home quality uniquely predict SR. Further, these early parenting variables were each indirectly associated with SR through children's attachment history. That is, higher levels of sensitivity and home quality predicted secure attachment history, which, along with parenting, predicted more advanced SR skills at 54 months. No moderated pathways emerged, suggesting that attachment history may be best conceptualized as a mediating mechanism.

Parent-child learning interactions: A review of the literature on scaffolding

BACKGROUND

Scaffolding can be observed during learning-based interactions, when interventions by parents are adjusted according to children's observed abilities, with the main goal of enabling the child to work independently (Wood et al., 1976, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 17, 89). Such contingent instruction behaviours occur from infancy, and are said to be relevant for children's development of executive function, language acquisition, and cognitive and academic abilities. Scaffolding behaviours are considered a product of the family and the wider context, a process affected by parent and child characteristics, and the environment they inhabit. Over 40 years of scaffolding research has produced an abundance of findings. Early investigations were concerned with the conceptualization of scaffolding, whereas more recent studies build upon the theory, testing its correlates and relevance for child development.

AIMS

This article offers an overview of the literature, focusing on the relevance of scaffolding for child developmental outcomes, and the factors associated with individual differences in the process.

STRUCTURE

The article is structured such that the origins of the theory and its definitions are discussed first, followed by an overview of the correlates of scaffolding. The review concludes with a critical evaluation of the literature, proposing novel avenues for future research.

Maternal Education Level Predicts Cognitive, Language, and Motor Outcome in Preterm Infants in the Second Year of Life

Objective To evaluate the relative impact of maternal education level (MEL) on cognitive, language, and motor outcomes at 20 months' corrected age (CA) in preterm infants. Study Design A total of 177 preterm infants born between 2008 and 2010 were tested at 20 months' CA using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III. Multiple regression analyses were done to determine the relative impact of MEL on cognitive, language, and motor scores. Results Infants born to mothers with high school MEL were 3.74 times more likely to have a subnormal motor index, while those born to mothers with some college and graduate school MEL had reduced odds (0.36 and 0.12, respectively) of having subnormal language index at 20 months. In linear regression, MEL was the strongest predictor of cognitive, language, and motor scores, and graduate school MEL was associated with increases in cognitive, motor, and language scores of 8.49, 8.23, and 15.74 points, respectively. Conclusions MEL is the most significant predictor of cognitive, language, and motor outcome at 20 months' CA in preterm infants. Further research is needed to evaluate if targeted interventions that focus on early childhood learning and parenting practices can ameliorate the impact of low MEL.

Exposure to Early Life Pain: Long Term Consequences and Contributing Mechanisms

From an evolutionary perspective, adaptations of an organism to its early environment are essential for survival. The occurrence of early life perturbation, coincident with increased developmental plasticity, provides a unique opportunity for such adaptations to become programmed and persist throughout life. However, adaptations that are beneficial to maintaining homeostasis in one's early environment may result in extreme response strategies that confer vulnerability or dysfunction later in life. This review summarizes recent findings in human and animal studies demonstrating that early life pain results in a hypo-/hyper-sensitive phenotype in response to acute and persistent pain and stress later in life. Changes in cognition and immune function in response to early life pain have also been observed. Recent data on the neural mechanisms underlying these long-term changes are discussed, as well as potential strategies to minimize the impact of early life pain.

Ethanol, Neurodevelopment, Infant and Child Health (ENRICH) prospective cohort: Study design considerations

BACKGROUND

While intervention is the leading factor in reducing long-term disabilities in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), early identification of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) remains challenging. Deficits in higher-order cognitive domains (e.g. executive function) might be more specific to FASD than global neurodevelopmental tests, yet these functions are not developed in very young children. Measures of early sensorimotor development may provide early indications of atypical brain development during the first two years of life.

METHODS

This paper describes the novel methodology of the Ethanol, Neurodevelopment, Infant and Child Health (ENRICH) prospective cohort study of 120 maternal-infant pairs with a goal to identify early indices of functional brain impairment associated with PAE. The cohort is established by recruiting women early in pregnancy and classifying them into one of three study groups: patients on opioid-maintenance therapy who consume alcohol during pregnancy (Group 1), patients on opioid-maintenance therapy who abstain from alcohol during pregnancy (Group 2), and healthy controls (Group 3). After the initial prenatal assessment (Visit 1), patients are followed to Visit 2 occurring at delivery, and two comprehensive assessments of children at six (Visit 3) and 20 months (Visit 4) of age. ENRICH recruitment started in November 2013 and 87 women were recruited during the first year. During Year 1, the biospecimen (maternal whole blood, serum, urine, dry blood spots of a newborn) collection rate was 100% at Visit 1, and 97.6% for those who completed Visit 2.

DISCUSSION

The tiered screening approach, evaluation of confounders, neurocognitive and magneto-/electro-encephalography (MEG/EEG) outcomes, and ethical considerations are discussed.

Associations between maternal scaffolding and executive functioning in 3 and 4 year olds born very low birth weight and normal birth weight

BACKGROUND

Deficits in executive function, including measures of working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility, have been documented in preschoolers born very low birth weight (VLBW) compared with preschoolers born normal birth weight (NBW). Maternal verbal scaffolding has been associated with positive outcomes for both at-risk and typically developing preschoolers.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to examine associations between maternal verbal scaffolding, Verbal IQ (VIQ) and executive function measures in preschoolers born VLBW.

SUBJECTS

A total of 64 VLBW and 40 NBW preschoolers ranging in age from 3 ½ to 4 years participated in the study.

OUTCOME MEASURES

VIQ was measured with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Third Edition. Executive function tests included the Bear Dragon, Gift Delay Peek, Reverse Categorization and Dimensional Change Card Sort-Separated Dimensions.

STUDY DESIGN

Maternal verbal scaffolding was coded during a videotaped play session. Associations between maternal verbal scaffolding and preschoolers' measures of VIQ and executive function were compared. Covariates included test age, maternal education, and gender.

RESULTS

Preschoolers born VLBW performed significantly worse on VIQ and all executive function measures compared to those born NBW. Maternal verbal scaffolding was associated with VIQ for VLBW preschoolers and Gift Delay Peek for the NBW group. Girls born VLBW outperformed boys born VLBW on VIQ and Bear Dragon.

CONCLUSION

Integrating scaffolding skills training as part of parent-focused intervention may be both feasible and valuable for early verbal reasoning and EF development.

Differential associations between maternal scaffolding and toddler emotion regulation in toddlers born preterm and full term

BACKGROUND

Parental "scaffolding" behavior has been associated with developmental outcomes in at-risk children.

AIMS

Because there are limited empirical data regarding how scaffolding is associated with emotion-based developmental skills, the purpose of this study was to compare associations between maternal verbal scaffolding and toddler emotion regulation, including fewer displays of negative affect and increased contentment and enjoyment during play, in toddlers born preterm and full term.

STUDY DESIGN

This study was a cross-sectional cohort design. Maternal and toddler behavior was assessed during 5 min of videotaped free play with standardized toys.

SUBJECTS

131 toddlers (18-22 months) and their mothers were included (77 born preterm; 54 born full term).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Toddler emotion regulation, negative affect, and dyadic mutual enjoyment were coded from videotaped play.

RESULTS

The association between maternal scaffolding and emotion regulation was different for dyads with a toddler born preterm versus full term, wherein the association was positive for toddlers born preterm and non-significant for toddlers born full term. Similarly, the association between maternal scaffolding and negative affect was different for the two groups: negative for toddlers born preterm and non-significant for toddlers born full term. Finally, the association between maternal scaffolding and mutual enjoyment was positive for toddlers born preterm and non-significant for toddlers born full term.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight early differences in mother-child interactive style correlates of children born preterm compared to those born full term. Maternal scaffolding behavior may be uniquely associated with emotion regulation and a positive dyadic encounter for toddlers born preterm.