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Brito VD, Achimón F, Zunino MP, Zygadlo JA, Pizzolitto RP. Fungal diversity and mycotoxins detected in maize stored in silo-bags: a review. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2022; 102:2640-2650. [PMID: 35076089 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Silo-bags are hermetic storage systems that inhibit fungal growth because of their atmosphere with low humidity, as well as low pH and O2 concentrations, and a high CO2 concentration. If a silo-bag with stored maize loses its hermetic nature, it favors the development of fungi and the production of mycotoxins. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review on the diversity of fungal species and mycotoxins that were reported in maize stored under the environmental conditions provided by silo-bags. The genera Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium were found more frequently, whereas Acremonium spp., Alternaria sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Debaryomyces spp., Epiconum sp., Eupenicillium spp., Eurotium sp., Eurotium amstelodami, Hyphopichia spp., Hyphopichia burtonii, Moniliella sp., Wallemia sp. and genera within the orden Mucorales were reported less recurrently. Despite finding a great fungal diversity, all of the studies focused their investigations on a small group of toxins: fumonisins (FBs), aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), patulin (PAT), toxin T2 (T2) and ochratoxin (OT). Of the FBs, fumonisin B1 and fumonisin B2 presented higher incidence percentages, followed by fumonisin B3 . Of the AFs, the only one reported was aflatoxin B1. The mycotoxins DON, ZEA and OT were found with lower incidences, whereas PAT and T2 were not detected. Good management practices of the silo-bags are necessary to achieve a hermetically sealed environment, without exchange of gases and water with the external environment during the storage period. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa D Brito
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA), FCEFyN, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fernanda Achimón
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA), FCEFyN, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María P Zunino
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA), FCEFyN, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Julio A Zygadlo
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA), FCEFyN, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Romina P Pizzolitto
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA), FCEFyN, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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Vandicke J, De Visschere K, Ameye M, Croubels S, De Saeger S, Audenaert K, Haesaert G. Multi-Mycotoxin Contamination of Maize Silages in Flanders, Belgium: Monitoring Mycotoxin Levels from Seed to Feed. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:202. [PMID: 33799633 PMCID: PMC7999811 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize silage, which in Europe is the main feed for dairy cattle in winter, can be contaminated by mycotoxins. Mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp. originating from field infections may survive in badly sealed silages or re-infect at the cutting edge during feed-out. In this way, mycotoxins produced in the field may persist during the silage process. In addition, typical silage fungi such as Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. survive in silage conditions and produce mycotoxins. In this research, 56 maize silages in Flanders were sampled over the course of three years (2016-2018). The concentration of 22 different mycotoxins was investigated using a multi-mycotoxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, and the presence of DNA of three Fusarium spp. (F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. verticillioides) was analyzed in a selection of these samples using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Every maize silage contained at least two different mycotoxins. Nivalenol (NIV) and deoxynivalenol (DON) were the most prevalent (both in 97.7% of maize silages), followed by ENN B (88.7%). Concentrations often exceeded the EU recommendations for DON and zearalenone (ZEN), especially in 2017 (21.3% and 27.7% of the maize silages, respectively). No correlations were found between fungal DNA and mycotoxin concentrations. Furthermore, by ensiling maize with a known mycotoxin load in a net bag, the mycotoxin contamination could be monitored from seed to feed. Analysis of these net bag samples revealed that the average concentration of all detected mycotoxins decreased after fermentation. We hypothesize that mycotoxins are eluted, degraded, or adsorbed during fermentation, but certain badly preserved silages are prone to additional mycotoxin production during the stable phase due to oxygen ingression, leading to extremely high toxin levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Vandicke
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (J.V.); (K.A.)
| | - Katrien De Visschere
- Biosciences and Food Sciences Department, Faculty Science and Technology, University College Ghent, Research Station HoGent-UGent, Diepestraat 1, 9820 Bottelare, Belgium;
| | - Maarten Ameye
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (J.V.); (K.A.)
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium;
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bio-analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (J.V.); (K.A.)
| | - Geert Haesaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (J.V.); (K.A.)
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Ogunade IM, Martinez-Tuppia C, Queiroz OCM, Jiang Y, Drouin P, Wu F, Vyas D, Adesogan AT. Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:4034-4059. [PMID: 29685276 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Ogunade
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - C Martinez-Tuppia
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - O C M Queiroz
- Chr Hansen, Animal Health and Nutrition, Chr. Hansen, Buenos Aires 1107, Argentina
| | - Y Jiang
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - P Drouin
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - F Wu
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - D Vyas
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - A T Adesogan
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608.
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Martinez Tuppia C, Atanasova-Penichon V, Chéreau S, Ferrer N, Marchegay G, Savoie JM, Richard-Forget F. Yeast and bacteria from ensiled high moisture maize grains as potential mitigation agents of fumonisin B 1. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2017; 97:2443-2452. [PMID: 27696424 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fumonisin B1 (FB1 ) is a mycotoxin produced by several Fusarium species and is a very common contaminant of maize-based food and feed throughout the world. The selection and use of FB1 -degrading microorganisms appears as a promising alternative to cope with the problem of toxicity towards humans and livestock. High moisture maize grain silage, which is based on natural maize fermentation, could be an interesting reservoir of such microorganisms. RESULTS Using an in vitro simulated silage model with FB1 naturally contaminated grains, we demonstrated a significant raw decrease in FB1 during ensiling process ascribed to biodegradation mechanisms. A panel of 98 bacteria and yeasts were isolated from this matrix and selected for their ability to use FB1 as the sole source of C and N. For nine of them, the ability to degrade FB1 in vitro was evidenced. Notably, two bacteria identified as Lactobacillus sp. were highlighted for their efficient FB1 -degrading capacity and production of hydrolysed FB1 as intermediate degradation metabolite. CONCLUSION Fermentation of high moisture maize grain contaminated with FB1 leads to a significant reduction of the toxin and allows the isolation of FB1 -degrading microorganisms that could further be used as FB1 decontaminating agents. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ccori Martinez Tuppia
- MycSA, Inra, 71 avenue Edouard Bourleaux, CS20032, F-33882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | | | - Sylvain Chéreau
- MycSA, Inra, 71 avenue Edouard Bourleaux, CS20032, F-33882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Nathalie Ferrer
- MycSA, Inra, 71 avenue Edouard Bourleaux, CS20032, F-33882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Gisèle Marchegay
- MycSA, Inra, 71 avenue Edouard Bourleaux, CS20032, F-33882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Jean-Michel Savoie
- MycSA, Inra, 71 avenue Edouard Bourleaux, CS20032, F-33882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
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Wambacq E, Vanhoutte I, Audenaert K, De Gelder L, Haesaert G. Occurrence, prevention and remediation of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in silage: a review. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2016; 96:2284-2302. [PMID: 26676761 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Ruminants are considered to be less sensitive towards mycotoxins than monogastric animals because rumen microbiota have mycotoxin-detoxifying capacities. Therefore the effect of mycotoxins towards ruminants has been studied to a lesser extent compared with monogastric animals. Worldwide, a high proportion of the ruminant diet consists of silages made of forage crops (i.e. all parts of the crop above the stubble are harvested). In practice, silages are often contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. Exposure to a cocktail of mycotoxins can hamper animal production and have severe health consequences. In this article the different aspects associated with mycotoxin contamination of silage are reviewed 'from seed to feed'. An overview is given on the occurrence of toxigenic fungal species and their concomitant mycotoxins in forage crops before and after ensiling. The mycotoxin load of visually non-mouldy samples and mouldy hot spots within the same silo is also compared. Subsequently, this review delves into different problem-solving strategies. A logical first step is prevention of mould growth and mycotoxin production in the field, during harvest and during ensiling. If prevention should fail, several remediation strategies are available. These are listed, mainly focusing on the possibilities of microbial degradation of mycotoxins in vivo in silage. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Wambacq
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, V. Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ilse Vanhoutte
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, V. Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, V. Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Leen De Gelder
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, V. Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Geert Haesaert
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, V. Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
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Dell’Orto V, Baldi G, Cheli F. Mycotoxins in silage: checkpoints for effective management and control. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Silage has a substantial role in ruminant nutrition. Silages as a source of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins merit attention. Fungal growth and mycotoxin production before and during storage are a well-known phenomenon, resulting in reduced nutritional value and a possible risk factor for animal health. Mycotoxin co-contamination seems to be unavoidable under current agricultural and silage-making practices. Multi-mycotoxin contamination in silages is of particular concern due to the potential additive or synergistic effects on animals. In regard to managing the challenge of mycotoxins in silages, there are many factors with pre- and post-harvest origins to take into account. Pre-harvest events are predominantly dictated by environmental factors, whereas post-harvest events can be largely controlled by the farmer. An effective mycotoxin management and control programme should be integrated and personalised to each farm at an integrative level throughout the silage production chain. Growing crops in the field, silage making practices, and the feed out phase must be considered. Economical and straightforward silage testing is critical to reach a quick and sufficiently accurate diagnosis of silage quality, which allows for ‘in field decision-making’ with regard to the rapid diagnosis of the quality of given forage for its safe use as animal feed. Regular sampling and testing of silage allow picking up any variations in mycotoxin contamination. The use of rapid methods in the field represents future challenges. Moreover, a proper nutritional intervention needs to be considered to manage mycotoxin-contaminated silages. At farm level, animals are more often exposed to moderate amounts of several mycotoxins rather than to high levels of a single mycotoxin, resulting more frequently in non-specific digestive and health status impairment. Effective dietary strategies to promote rumen health, coupled with the administration of effective and broad-spectrum mycotoxin detoxifiers, are essential to minimise the negative impact of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Dell’Orto
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20134 Milano, Italy
| | - G. Baldi
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20134 Milano, Italy
| | - F. Cheli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20134 Milano, Italy
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Occurrence and stability of masked fumonisins in corn silage samples. Food Chem 2015; 189:38-44. [PMID: 26190598 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Corn plants contaminated with Fusarium verticilloides were harvested at two dates and ensiled in laboratory silos. The stability of Fumonisins B1 and B2 (FB1, FB2) was studied and the effects of inoculant use (Lactobacillus buchneri) and of the ensiling time were assessed. The occurrence of masked fumonisins was also investigated. After the extraction of the free forms (FB1, FB2), the residue was subjected to an alkaline hydrolysis resulting in the release of derivates subsequently detected by LC-HESI-MS/MS. The ensiling time has shown to be a significant factor for the evolution of free FB1 and FB2 at the 2nd harvest date. Moreover, the use of inoculant had a significant effect on the stability of hidden and total FB1 at the two harvest dates. Samples previously ensiled and exposed to aerobic conditions for 7days have shown higher fumonisin levels than those not exposed to air. Our results showed that 65% and 39% of the total FB1 and FB2 contents in silage were due to hidden fumonisins.
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Uegaki R, Tohno M, Yamamura K, Tsukiboshi T, Uozumi S. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in forage maize during crop growth in Japan: case study. Mycotoxin Res 2014; 31:51-6. [PMID: 25208749 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-014-0210-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated concentrations of mycotoxins during the growth of four cultivars of forage maize (Zea mays L.) in Nasushiobara, Tochigi prefecture, and their distribution in ears of maize grown in Morioka, Iwate prefecture, Japan. In experiment 1, we measured concentrations of naturally occurring fumonisin, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone at progressive crop growth stages. Concentrations of fumonisin in stems+leaves remained very low or not detectable, but those in ears became detectable at 40 days after heading and increased rapidly after 50 days after heading (DAH) (fumonisin B1+B2<3260 μg/kg; mean value at 50-74 days after heading). Concentrations varied widely within cultivars on the same day. Concentrations of nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in stems+leaves and in ears were low or not detectable throughout the experiment. In experiment 2, we collected three ears of each cultivar at the late yellow-ripe stage that showed extreme symptoms of Fusarium ear rot. Concentrations of fumonisin were extremely high in the upper half of ears in all cultivars (fumonisin B1+B2 18,000-25,900 μg/kg) but low in the lower half and bracts. Concentrations of nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were extremely low or not detectable. These results show that fumonisin concentrations in ears increased rapidly after 50 DAH, they were extremely high in ears of all cultivars with symptoms of Fusarium ear rot, and fumonisin was the most common contaminant. These results will help reduce mycotoxin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Uegaki
- Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Senbonmatsu 768, Nasushiobara, Tochigi, 329-2793, Japan,
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