Short-term ingestion of deoxynivalenol in naturally contaminated feed alters piglet performance and gut hormone secretion

Piceatannol Alleviates Deoxynivalenol-Induced Damage in Intestinal Epithelial Cells via Inhibition of the NF-κB Pathway

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common mycotoxin that is widely found in various foods and feeds, posing a potential threat to human and animal health. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of the natural polyphenol piceatannol (PIC) against DON-induced damage in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2 cells) and the underlying mechanism. The results showed that PIC promotes IPEC-J2 cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, it not only significantly relieved DON-induced decreases in cell viability and proliferation but also reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Further studies demonstrated that PIC alleviated DON-induced oxidative stress damage by increasing the protein expression levels of the antioxidant factors NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM), and the mRNA expression of catalase (CAT), Superoxide Dismutase 1 (SOD1), peroxiredoxin 3 (PRX3), and glutathione S-transferase alpha 4 (GSTα4). In addition, PIC inhibited the activation of the nuclear factor-B (NF-κB) pathway, downregulated the mRNA expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) to attenuate DON-induced inflammatory responses, and further mitigated DON-induced cellular intestinal barrier injury by regulating the protein expression of Occludin. These findings indicated that PIC had a significant protective effect against DON-induced damage. This study provides more understanding to support PIC as a feed additive for pig production.

Selenium nanoparticles alleviate deoxynivalenol-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction by regulating endoplasmic reticulum stress in IPEC-J2 cells

The intestinal epithelial barrier plays a crucial role in maintaining human and animal health. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that contaminates cereal-based foods worldwide, which is a serious threat to human and animal health. This study was aimed to investigate the protective effect of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) synthesized by Lactobacillus casei ATCC 393 against DON-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction and its relationship with PERK-mediated signaling pathway. IPEC-J2 cells were randomly assigned to four groups: Con (vehicle), DON (0.6 μg DON/mL, 48 h), SeNPs+DON (8 μg Se/mL, 24 h; 0.6 μg DON/mL, 48 h) and SeNPs (8 μg Se/mL, 24 h). Compared with Con group, the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and the tight junction proteins expression of IPEC-J2 cells exposed to DON was increased and decreased, respectively. In addition, DON exposure led to increased ROS content, decreased antioxidant capacity, structural damage of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) pathway in IPEC-J2. Compared with SeNPs+DON group, SeNPs alleviated oxidative stress, ER structure damage and PERK pathway activation and the increase of intestinal epithelial permeability of IPEC-J2 cells exposed to DON. PERK agonist (CCT020312) and inhibitor (GSK2656157) treatments were performed to identify the role of PERK signaling pathway in the regulatory effects of SeNPs on DON-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction. Compared with SeNPs+DON group, PERK agonist increased the expression levels of p-PERK. PERK inhibitor exerted a similar inhibitory effect to SeNPs on the p-PERK expression. In conclusion, SeNPs effectively alleviate DON-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction in IPEC-J2 cells, which are closely associated with ERS-related PERK signaling pathway. This will provide a potential solution for prevention and control of DON in the aquaculture industry.

Deoxynivalenol induces intestinal injury: insights from oxidative stress and intestinal stem cells

Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that frequently occur in human and animal diets. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most widely occurring mycotoxins globally and poses significant harm to the animal husbandry industry and human health. People are increasingly aware of the adverse effects of DON on vulnerable structures and functions in the intestine, especially in the field of intestinal stem cells (ISCs). In this review, we present insights into DON that induces oxidative stress and affects the expansion of ISCs. Related studies of strategies for reducing its harm are summarized. We also discussed promising approaches such as regulation of microbiota, molecular docking, and modulation of the redox status via reducing the expression of Keap1 protein and single-cell sequencing, which may be critical for further revealing the mechanism of DON that induces oxidative stress and affects the expansion of ISCs.

Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.

Low Dose of Deoxynivalenol Aggravates Intestinal Inflammation and Barrier Dysfunction Induced by Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Infection through Activating Macroautophagy/NLRP3 Inflammasomes

The toxicity of deoxynivalenol (DON) in healthy humans and animals has been extensively studied. However, whether the natural-low-dose DON is scatheless under unhealthy conditions, especially intestinal injury, is unknown. Infection of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a classical intestinal injury model. In this study, we explored the effects of low-dose DON on intestinal injury induced by the ETEC infection and the underlying mechanism in piglets, mice, and IPEC-J2 monolayer cells. Results showed that significant growth slowdown, severe diarrhea, and intestinal damage, bacterial multiplication, and translocation were observed in the experimental group (low-dose DON, 0.75 mg/kg in feed for piglets, and 1 mg/kg body weight for mice, combined with the ETEC infection). Meanwhile, more aggressive intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction were observed in animals and IPEC-J2 monolayer cells. Higher expression levels of NLRP3 inflammasome and LC3B were observed in jejunum and IPEC-J2 in the experimental group. After treatment with NLRP3 or caspase1 inhibitors, excessive intestinal inflammation rather than barrier dysfunction in the experimental group was limited. CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of LC3B alleviated intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction and also inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome. In conclusion, a low dose of DON aggravates intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction induced by the ETEC infection by activating macroautophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome.

Resveratrol Improves Intestinal Morphology and Anti-Oxidation Ability in Deoxynivalenol-Challenged Piglets

Simple Summary

Deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated feed may cause anorexia, vomiting, immunosuppression, and intestinal dysfunction in pigs, which would lead to growth retardation and great losses in the pig industry. In this study, the effects of resveratrol (RES) on growth performance, the intestinal barrier, antioxidant capacity, and mitochondrial function in weaned pigs fed with DON-contaminated diets were investigated. Dietary supplementation with resveratrol increased the average daily feed intake of piglets. Diets supplemented with resveratrol increased the villus height and the ratio of the jejunum villus height to crypt depth, increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), and increased the total antioxidant capacity in the jejunum mucosa. After being supplemented with RES, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria was decreased, while the mitochondrial membrane potential in the jejunum was increased. In conclusion, these results suggested that resveratrol effectively relieved DON-induced oxidative stress in weaned piglets, improved intestinal barrier function, enhanced mitochondrial function, and improved the growth performance of piglets.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the potential effects of resveratrol (RES) on intestinal function and oxidative stress in deoxynivalenol (DON)-challenged piglets. Twenty-four healthy Duroc × Yorkshire × Landrace weaned piglets at the age of 28 ± 1 days were randomly divided into four groups with six repetitions per group. The four groups were as follows: the control group (CON), fed with a basic diet; the RES group, fed with a basal diet + 300 mg/kg RES; the DON group, fed with a basal diet containing 2.65 mg/kg DON; and the DON + RES group, fed with a basal diet containing 2.65 mg/kg DON + 300 mg/kg RES. The results showed that the growth performance and intestinal function of DON-challenged piglets were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Compared with the DON group, the average daily feed intake of piglets in the DON + RES group was significantly increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, dietary RES ameliorated DON-induced intestinal morphology impairment, as indicated by the increased (p < 0.05) jejunal villi height and the ratio of the jejunal villi height/crypt depth. Furthermore, after the addition of RES, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in the jejunum mucosa were significantly increased, and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) was significantly declined (p < 0.05). In addition, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the mitochondria was significantly reduced by RES, while the mitochondrial membrane potential in jejunum was significantly increased by RES (p < 0.05). However, there was no obvious difference between DON + RES and DON groups on average daily gain and the ratio of feed togain, except for the significant inhibition of average daily feed intake (p < 0.05). In conclusion, RES could effectively alleviate the DON-induced oxidative stress on weaned piglets, and reduce the damage to mitochondria and intestinal morphology, so as to improve the growth performance of piglets.

Effect of chlorogenic acid on alleviating inflammation and apoptosis of IPEC-J2 cells induced by deoxyniyalenol

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is extensively detected in many kinds of foods and feeds to harm human and animal health. This research aims to investigate the effect of chlorogenic acid (CGA) on alleviating inflammation and apoptosis of swine jejunal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) triggered by DON. The results demonstrated that cell viability was decreased when DON concentrations increased or incubation time expanded. The pretreatment with CGA (40 μg/mL) for 1 h increased cell viability, decreased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and apoptosis in cells triggered by DON at 0.5 μg/mL for 6 h, compared with the DON alone-treated cells. Moreover, the mRNA abundances of IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, COX-2, caspase-3, Bax and ASCT2 genes, and protein expressions of COX-2, Bax and ASCT2 were significantly down-regulated; while the mRNA abundances of ZO-1, claudin-1, occludin, PePT1 and GLUT2 genes, and protein expressions of ZO-1, claudin-1 and PePT1 were significantly up-regulated in the CGA + DON group, compared with the DON alone group. This study indicated that CGA pretreatment alleviated cytotoxicity, inflammation and apoptosis in DON-triggered IPEC-J2 cells, and protected intestinal cell integrity from DON damages.

The Compromised Intestinal Barrier Induced by Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that occur in human foods and animal feeds, potentially threatening human and animal health. The intestine is considered as the first barrier against these external contaminants, and it consists of interconnected physical, chemical, immunological, and microbial barriers. In this context, based on in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models, we summarize the literature for compromised intestinal barrier issues caused by various mycotoxins, and we reviewed events related to disrupted intestinal integrity (physical barrier), thinned mucus layer (chemical barrier), imbalanced inflammatory factors (immunological barrier), and dysfunctional bacterial homeostasis (microbial barrier). We also provide important information on deoxynivalenol, a leading mycotoxin implicated in intestinal dysfunction, and other adverse intestinal effects induced by other mycotoxins, including aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. In addition, intestinal perturbations caused by mycotoxins may also contribute to the development of mycotoxicosis, including human chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases. Therefore, we provide a clear understanding of compromised intestinal barrier induced by mycotoxins, with a view to potentially develop innovative strategies to prevent and treat mycotoxicosis. In addition, because of increased combinatorial interactions between mycotoxins, we explore the interactive effects of multiple mycotoxins in this review.

Nontoxic-dose deoxynivalenol aggravates lipopolysaccharides-induced inflammation and tight junction disorder in IPEC-J2 cells through activation of NF-κB and LC3B

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the key factor in various intestinal inflammation which could disrupt the epithelial barrier function. Deoxynivalenol (DON), a well-known mycotoxin, can induce intestinal injury. However, the combined enterotoxicity of LPS and DON has rarely been studied. In this study, IPEC-J2 cell monolayers were exposed to LPS and nontoxic-dose DON for 12 and 24 h to investigate the effects of DON on LPS-induced inflammatory response and tight junction variation, and specific inhibitor and CRISPR-Cas9 were used to explore the underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that nontoxic-dose DON aggravated LPS-induced cellular inflammatory response, reflecting on more significant changes of inflammatory cytokines mRNA expression, higher protein expression of NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) and procaspase-1. Moreover, nontoxic-dose DON aggravated LPS-induced mRNA and protein expression decreased, and distribution confused of tight junction proteins. We found that DON further enhanced LPS-induced phosphorylation and nucleus translocation of p65, and expression of LC3B-Ⅱ. NF-κB inhibitor and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of LC3B attenuated the effects of combination which indicated nontoxic-dose DON aggravated LPS-induced intestinal inflammation and tight junction disorder through activating NF-κB signaling pathway and autophagy-related protein LC3B. It further warns that ingesting low doses of mycotoxins may exacerbate the effects of intestinal pathogens on the body.

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Nontoxic-dose DON aggravates LPS-induced cellular inflammatory response in IPEC-J2 cell monolayers.

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Nontoxic-dose DON aggravates LPS-induced decrease and distribution disorder of tight junction in IPEC-J2 cell monolayers.

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Nontoxic-dose DON aggravates LPS-induced inflammatory response and tight junction disorder by activating NF-κB and LC3B.

Low doses of individual and combined deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in naturally moldy diets impair intestinal functions via inducing inflammation and disrupting epithelial barrier in the intestine of piglets

The intestinal epithelium is the first barrier against food contaminants and is highly sensitive to Fusarium toxins, especially deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA). Here, we explored the effects of low doses of DON and/or ZEA in naturally moldy diets on intestinal functions in piglets, including inflammatory responses, epithelial barrier, and microbial composition. Piglets were treated with a control diet (CON), DON diet (1000.6 μg/kg), ZEA diet (269.1 μg/kg), and DON + ZEA diet (1007.5 + 265.4 μg/kg), respectively, for 3 weeks and then switched to the same CON diet for another 2 weeks. In the first period, even the selected low doses of DON or ZEA in the diet resulted in intestinal inflammation, diminish protein expression (claudin-4) and altered gut microbiota populations. Whereas upon switching to the CON diet for another 2 weeks, the deleterious effect of ZEA and DON on IL-1β and Bifidobacterium population could not be recovered. Additionally, combined DON and ZEA negatively affected body weight gain and feed consumption of piglets, as well as shown synergistic effects on evoking pro-inflammatory cytokines contents (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and perturbing the cecum microbiota profile (E. coli, Lactobacillus, and Bifidobacterium). Collectively, chronic consumption of DON and ZEA contaminated feed or food, even at low doses, can induce intestinal damage and may have consequences for animal and human health.

Maternal Supplementation of Food Ingredient (Prebiotic) or Food Contaminant (Mycotoxin) Influences Mucosal Immune System in Piglets

The early life period is crucial for the maturation of the intestinal barrier, its immune system, and a life-long beneficial host-microbiota interaction. The study aims to assess the impact of a beneficial dietary (short-chain fructooligosaccharides, scFOS) supplementation vs. a detrimental dietary environment (such as mycotoxin deoxynivalenol, DON) on offspring intestinal immune system developmental profiles. Sows were given scFOS-supplemented or DON-contaminated diets during the last 4 weeks of gestation, whereas force-feeding piglets with DON was performed during the first week of offspring life. Intestinal antigen-presenting cell (APC) subset frequency was analyzed by flow cytometry in the Peyer's patches and in lamina propria and the responsiveness of intestinal explants to toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands was performed using ELISA and qRT-PCR from post-natal day (PND) 10 until PND90. Perinatal exposure with scFOS did not affect the ontogenesis of APC. While it early induced inflammatory responses in piglets, scFOS further promoted the T regulatory response after TLR activation. Sow and piglet DON contamination decreased CD16+ MHCII+ APC at PND10 in lamina propria associated with IFNγ inflammation and impairment of Treg response. Our study demonstrated that maternal prebiotic supplementation and mycotoxin contamination can modulate the mucosal immune system responsiveness of offspring through different pathways.

Astilbin ameliorates deoxynivalenol-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common mycotoxin, which often induces oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in humans and animals. Astilbin (AST), as a natural antioxidant, exhibits multiple pharmacological functions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of AST on alleviating DON-induced cytotoxicity in intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). The results demonstrated that 0.5 μg/mL DON stimulation for 6 hours induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells. AST enhanced the cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The addition of 20 μg/mL AST significantly increased cell viability, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, Bcl-2 gene expression and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio (P < .05), and decreased lactate dehydrogenase release, malondialdehyde content and the relative expressions of genes associated with inflammation and apoptosis such as interleukin-6 and -8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, cyclooxygenase-2, nuclear factor-kappaB, Bax and caspase-3 (P < .05). Simultaneously, zonula occludens-1, claudin-1 and PepT1 gene expressions were upregulated and occludin, ASCT2 and GLUT2 gene expressions were downregulated by the addition of AST, compared with the DON group (P < .05). These results indicated that 20 μg/mL AST could ameliorate oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities and intestinal barrier function, and reducing the expressions of inflammation and apoptosis genes, as well as improve the barrier function and nutrient transport and absorption in DON-induced IPEC-J2 cells.

Protective Role of Hydrogen Gas on Oxidative Damage and Apoptosis in Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2) Induced by Deoxynivalenol: A Preliminary Study

To explore the protective role of hydrogen gas (H2) on oxidative damage and apoptosis in intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) induced by deoxynivalenol (DON), cells were assigned to four treatment groups, including control, 5 μM DON, H2-saturated medium, and 5 μM DON + H2-saturated medium treatments. After 12 h of different treatments, the cell viability, biomarkers of cell redox states, and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes and apoptosis were observed and detected. Furthermore, caspase-3 and Bax protein expressions were measured by Western blot analysis. Our results demonstrated that the 5 μM DON significantly caused cytotoxicity to IPEC-J2 cells by reducing cell viability and increasing lactate dehydrogenase release in culture supernatants. Moreover, DON treatments significantly increased levels of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, 3-nitrotyrosine, and malonaldehyde; however, they decreased total superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and downregulated messenger RNA (mRNA) expression related to antioxidant enzymes in cells. The 5 μM DON treatment also downregulated Bcl-2 expression and upregulated caspase-3 and Bax expression. However, the H2-saturated medium significantly improved cell growth status and reversed the change of redox states and expression of genes and proteins related to apoptosis induced by DON in IPEC-J2 cells. In conclusion, H2 could protect IPEC-J2 cells from DON-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis in vitro.

Deoxynivalenol induced apoptosis and inflammation of IPEC-J2 cells by promoting ROS production

Deoxynivalenol (DON) frequently detected in a wide range of foods and feeds, inducing cytotoxicity to animals and humans. To investigate the underlying mechanism of DON-induced apoptosis and inflammation in porcine small intestinal epithelium, intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2 cells) were chosen as objects, and were treated by different concentrations (0 μg/mL, 0.2 μg/mL, 0.5 μg/mL, 1.0 μg/mL, 2.0 μg/mL, 4.0 μg/mL, 6.0 μg/mL) of DON. The results showed that DON induced cytotoxicity of IPEC-J2 cells in a dose-dependent manner, which is demonstrated by decreasing cell viability. Compared with the control group, DON treatment increased the expressions of genes associated with inflammation and apoptosis, such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), cyclooxgenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and decreased the cell anti-oxidative status. Protein immunofluorescence showed increased expression of caspase-3, nuclear factor kB (NF-κB) and phosphorylated NF-κB in IPEC-J2 cells. DON increased the content of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) of IPEC-J2 cells. N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), a commonly used antioxidant, blocked DON-induced ROS generation, alleviated the DON-induced apoptosis and inflammation. These results suggested that DON-induced impairment of IPEC-J2 cells is possibly due to increased ROS production, and expressions of genes and proteins associated with apoptosis and inflammation.

Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Swine Feeding from Spain

A survey including 228 pig feed samples from Spain has been developed, exploring the occurrence of 19 mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxin A, fumonisins B1 and B2, citrinin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, sterigmatocystin, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, enniatins A, A1, B and B2, and beauvericin). The samples were analysed by solid-liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence or mass spectrometry detection. Enniatin B was found in 100% of the samples (up to 1200 µg/kg) and beauvericin in more than 90%. Moreover, 40% of samples were contaminated with more than five mycotoxins. This high occurrence is insurmountable and surpasses all previous studies, probably due to the inclusion of emerging mycotoxins, scarcely explored. The majority of the samples (96.9%) were in accordance with EU regulations, which do not address emerging mycotoxins or co-occurrence. These results show that in order to ensure mycotoxin absence, emerging mycotoxins should always be considered.

Progress in Mycotoxins Affecting Intestinal Mucosal Barrier Function

Mycotoxins, which are widely found in feed ingredients and human food, can exert harmful effects on animals and pose a serious threat to human health. As the first barrier against external pollutants, the intestinal mucosa is protected by a mechanical barrier, chemical barrier, immune barrier, and biological barrier. Firstly, mycotoxins can disrupt the mechanical barrier function of the intestinal mucosa, by destroying the morphology and tissue integrity of the intestinal epithelium. Secondly, mycotoxins can cause changes in the composition of mucin monosaccharides and the expression of intestinal mucin, which in turn affects mucin function. Thirdly, mycotoxins can cause damage to the intestinal mucosal immune barrier function. Finally, the microbiotas of animals closely interact with ingested mycotoxins. Based on existing research, this article reviews the effects of mycotoxins on the intestinal mucosal barrier and its mechanisms.

Review article: Role of satiety hormones in anorexia induction by Trichothecene mycotoxins

The trichothecenes, produced by Fusarium, contaminate animal feed and human food in all stages of production and lead to a large spectrum of adverse effects for animal and human health. An hallmark of trichothecenes toxicity is the onset of emesis followed by anorexia and food intake reduction in different animal species (mink, mice and pig). The modulation of emesis and anorexia can result from a direct action of trichothecenes in the brain or from an indirect action in the gastrointestinal tract. The direct action of trichothecenes involved specific brain areas such as nucleate tractus solitarius in the brainstem and the arcuate nuclei in the hypothalamus. Activation of these areas in the brain leads to the activation of specific neuronal populations containing anorexigenic factors (POMC and CART). The indirect action of trichothecenes in the gastrointestinal tract involved, by enteroendocrine cells, the secretion of several gut hormones such as cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide YY (PYY) but also glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), which transmitted signals to the brain via the gut-brain axis. This review summarizes current knowledge on the effects of trichothecenes, especially deoxynivalenol, on emesis and anorexia and discusses the mechanisms underlying trichothecenes-induced food reduction.