Are all cases of paediatric essential thrombocythaemia really myeloproliferative neoplasms? Analysis of a large cohort

Childhood and adolescent essential thrombocythemia and prefibrotic primary myelofibrosis: insights into diagnosis, outcomes, and treatment from a large Chinese cohort

The paucity of essential thrombocythemia (ET) and prefibrotic primary myelofibrosis (pre-PMF) in individuals younger than 18 years highlights several unresolved issues in diagnosis, clinical outcomes, and treatment strategies. To address these knowledge gaps, we analyzed a large bidirectional cohort consisting of childhood and adolescent ET (CAA-ET, n = 156) and pre-PMF (CAA-preMF, n = 13), as well as adult ET (n = 349). We introduced immunophenotypic abnormalities as novel clonal markers in CAA-ET and CAA-preMF, establishing a comprehensive method for clonal marker detection that integrated driver and non-driver mutations, positive endogenous erythroid colony formation, immunophenotypic abnormalities, and chromosomal aberrations. Next-generation sequencing revealed distinct mutational profiles between CAA-ET and adult ET, along with different age-related trends in the distribution of driver mutations. Venous thrombosis was more prevalent in CAA-ET, with JAK2 V617F emerging as a potential risk factor (P = 0.018). Immunophenotypic abnormalities were identified as risk factors for disease progression (P = 0.027). Significant differences between expected and actual treatment practices were identified. Compared to CAA-ET, CAA-preMF demonstrated poorer progression-free survival (P < 0.001) and faster disease progression (P = 0.019). This study provides a critical foundation for refining diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic approaches for CAA-ET and CAA-preMF.

Thrombotic Disorders in the Newborn

The coagulation and thrombotic systems of an infant are fundamentally different from those of adults and older children. Hemostatic factors have inherently lower circulation levels in infants and are also affected prenatally by conditions of pregnancy. The unique physiology of neonates can contribute to a procoagulant state, which can result in a high level of morbidity and mortality. This review outlines the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, diagnosis and management, and etiologies of congenital and acquired forms of thrombotic disorders, with a discussion of the evaluation for hypercoagulation.

Absence of canonical mutations in pediatric essential thrombocytosis: a case series

Essential thrombocytosis (ET) is a rare myeloproliferative disease in children, and there are few standard management guidelines. We herein report a case series of 10 pediatric patients with ET diagnosed at our institution over a period of 13 years. All patients fulfilled the World Health Organization diagnostic criteria for ET, and none harbored the canonical ET mutations JAK2 V617F, CALR, or MPL. Overall, 7 of the 10 patients received treatment for ET, and during follow-up, 3 of these 7 patients discontinued cytoreductive therapy. No patient experienced hemorrhagic or thrombotic complications. Our case series emphasizes that the genetic features of pediatric ET may differ significantly from those of adult ET, and that treatment cessation is a possibility for some patients.

Clinical utility of investigations in triple-negative thrombocytosis: A real-world, multicentre evaluation of UK practice

Diagnosis of essential thrombocythaemia (ET) is challenging in patients lacking JAK2/CALR/MPL mutations. In a retrospective evaluation of 320 patients with 'triple-negative thrombocytosis', we assessed utility of bone marrow histology (90.9% of patients) and myeloid gene panel (MGP, 55.6%). Supportive histology ('myeloproliferative neoplasm-definite/probable', 36.8%) was associated with higher platelet counts and varied between centres. 14.6% MGP revealed significant variants: 3.4% JAK2/CALR/MPL and 11.2% other myeloid genes. Final clinical diagnosis was strongly predicted by histology, not MGP. 23.7% received cytoreduction (17.6% under 60 years). Real-world 'triple-negative' ET diagnosis currently depends heavily on histology; we advocate caution in MGP-negative cases and that specific guidelines are needed.

Clinical and molecular characteristics of forty Chinese children with essential thrombocythemia: A single-center, retrospective analysis

Due to the infrequency of essential thrombocythemia (ET) in children, little is known about its pathophysiological mechanism. To learn about the clinical and molecular features of Chinese children with ET, we retrospectively analysed 40 children with ET in a single center from 2015-2021. More than half of the children (51.3%, 20/39) were asymptomatic at diagnosis. Nearly half of the children (48.7%, 19/39) had microvascular symptoms, including headache, dizziness, stomachache, and paresthesia. Only two cases experienced vascular events. The proportion of children with typical "driver gene mutations" (i.e., JAK2 p.V617F, CALR exon 9, or MPL exon 10 mutation) was low (12.5%, 5/40). The equivalent ratio of children carried atypical driver gene mutations; however, 30 (75%) patients did not harbour driver gene mutations. Children carrying JAK2 p.V617F had lower platelet count (938 × 10⁹ /L vs. 1654 × 10⁹ /L, p = 0.031) compared to those without driver gene mutations. Cases harbouring typical driver mutations had higher median WBC counts than those without driver gene mutations (15.14 × 10⁹ /L vs. 8.01 × 10⁹ /L, p = 0.015). Compared to those without driver gene mutations, cases carrying typical and atypical driver gene mutations were both younger (median ages were 12, 6, and 7 years old, respectively; p = 0.023). The most prevalent non-driver gene mutations and those mutations with prognostic significance in adult counterparts were less common in children with ET compared to adults with ET.

Essential Thrombocythemia in Children and Adolescents

Simple Summary

Among chronic Ph-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms, essential thrombocythemia is found in children with low but increasing incidence. The diagnostic and clinical features do not completely overlap with ET of adult age. A significant number of cases, in fact, do not meet the criteria of clonality, and many cases require extensive clinical evaluation to exclude secondary, reactive forms. Therefore, histological analysis of bone marrow biopsy is necessary, and its use should be enforced. The clinical course appears to be more benign, at least within the first decades of observation, with the incidence of thrombotic events being much lower than in adults (4 % vs. 30%). Hemorrhages are mostly irrelevant. Therefore, the management should be carefully adapted to the individual patient, balancing the risk of future complications with long-term collateral effects of any drug. This review analyzes the peculiarities of the disease facing similarities and differences with adult scenarios.

Abstract

This paper reviews the features of pediatric essential thrombocythemia (ET). ET is a rare disease in children, challenging pediatric and adult hematologists alike. The current WHO classification acknowledges classical Philadelphia-negative MPNs and defines diagnostic criteria, mainly encompassing adult cases. The presence of one of three driver mutations (JAK2V617F, CALR, and MPL mutations) represent the proof of clonality typical of ET. Pediatric ET cases are thus usually confronted by adult approaches. These can fit only some patients, because only 25–40% of cases present one of the driver mutations. The diagnosis of hereditary, familial thrombocytosis and the exclusion of reactive/secondary thrombocytosis must be part of the diagnostic process in children and can clarify most of the negative cases. Still, many children present a clinical, histological picture of ET, with a molecular triple wild-type status. Moreover, prognosis seems more benign, at least within the first few decades of follow-up. Thrombotic events are rare, and only minor hemorrhages are ordinarily observed. As per the management, the need to control symptoms must be balanced with the collateral effects of lifelong drug therapy. We conclude that these differences concert a compelling case for a very careful therapeutic approach and advocate for the importance of further cooperative studies.

Pediatric Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Myeloproliferative neoplasms can present early in life and may present a diagnostic challenge. Very few studies have focused on the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy for pediatric myeloproliferative neoplasms. This article focuses on chronic myeloid leukemia, essential thrombocythemia, polycythemia vera, and primary myelofibrosis in children.

Essential Thrombocythemia in a 15-Year-Old Female: Presentation, Workup, and Treatment Considerations in the Pediatric Population

Essential thrombocythemia (ET) is a diagnosis most often seen in adults but can also present in children in rare cases. This article reviews the presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of ET in a 15-year-old female followed by a review of the literature regarding special considerations in the workup, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of ET in the pediatric population.

Thrombocytosis in children and adolescents-classification, diagnostic approach, and clinical management

Secondary thrombocytosis is a frequent secondary finding in childhood infection and inflammation. Primary hereditary thrombocytosis may be caused by germline mutations within the genes encoding key regulators of thrombopoiesis, i.e., thrombopoietin (THPO) and its receptor c-MPL (MPL) or the receptor's effector kinase Januskinase2 (JAK2). Furthermore, somatic mutations in JAK2, MPL, and in the gene-encoding calreticulin (CALR) have been described to act as driver mutations within the so-called Philadelphia-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), namely essential thrombocythemia (ET), polycythemia vera (PV), and primary myelofibrosis (PMF). Increasing knowledge on the molecular mechanisms and on the clinical complications of these diseases is reflected by the WHO diagnostic criteria and European LeukemiaNet (ELN) recommendations on the management of adult MPN. However, data on childhood thrombocytosis are rare, and no consensus guidelines for pediatric thrombocytosis exist. Current literature has highlighted differences in the epidemiology and molecular pathogenesis of childhood thrombocytosis as compared to adults. Furthermore, age-dependent complications and pharmacological specificities suggest that recommendations tailored to the pediatric population are necessary in clinical practice. Here we summarize literature on classification, diagnostics, and clinical management of childhood thrombocytosis.

Human growth disorders associated with impaired GH action: Defects in STAT5B and JAK2

Growth hormone (GH) promotes postnatal human growth primarily by regulating insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I production through activation of the GH receptor (GHR)-JAK2-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-5B signaling pathway. Inactivating STAT5B mutations, both autosomal recessive (AR) and dominant-negative (DN), are causal of a spectrum of GH insensitivity (GHI) syndrome, IGF-I deficiency and postnatal growth failure. Only AR STAT5B defects, however, confer additional characteristics of immune dysfunction which can manifest as chronic, potentially fatal, pulmonary disease. Somatic activating STAT5B and JAK2 mutations are associated with a plethora of immune abnormalities but appear not to impact human linear growth. In this review, molecular defects associated with STAT5B deficiency is highlighted and insights towards understanding human growth and immunity is emphasized.

Myeloproliferative Neoplasms in Children and Adolescents and Thrombosis at Unusual Sites: The Role of Driver Mutations

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) in childhood and adolescence are rare and seldom complicated by thrombosis. We describe 3 cases of thrombosis at unusual sites in young patients with MPNs. In the pediatric MPN population, unlike in adult MPNs, a clonal mutation is identifiable in only a minority of cases (22% to 26%). All 3 of these individuals had JAK2 mutations driving the disease process. A literature search identified 19 cases of MPN-associated thrombosis in children. Seventeen of the 19 children (89.5%) had a driver mutation. These cases suggest that identifiable driver mutations may confer an increased thrombotic risk in children with MPNs.

Contemporary management of essential thrombocythemia in children

INTRODUCTION

Essential thrombocythemia (ET) is a disease which is extremely rare in children. Only recently, data on pediatric ET have become available. Areas covered: In children with sustained platelet count over 450 x 10⁹/L, secondary thrombocytosis must be ruled out. ET workup comprehends research of JAK2V617F, CALR and MPL mutations and bone marrow biopsy (BM). In asymptomatic children wait and watch is the best option. Aspirin controls headache and other microvascular disturbances. Patients with venous thrombosis need anticoagulation. Cytoreductive drugs in children with ET should be prescribed as a last choice. Hydroxyurea and IFN-a are first-line therapy at any age including children; Anagrelide is not licensed as first-line therapy for ET in Europe. New JAK2-inhibitors are not clearly useful in ET and hence not approved for ET. Expert opinion: The most challenging problem is to understand if a child with prolonged not secondary thrombocytosis really has ET. Diagnostic workup requires molecular and histological studies. The rare children with clonal ET have features like those of adults. Patients with ET have long expected survival and the treatment in children must be long-term efficacious and well tolerated.

Characteristics and outcomes of patients with essential thrombocythemia or polycythemia vera diagnosed before 20 years of age: a systematic review

Although it is well known that myeloproliferative neoplasms occur in younger patients, few large cohorts of such patients have been reported. Thus, our knowledge about circumstances of diagnosis, outcome and treatment is limited, especially for children and young adults. We therefore performed a systematic review of cases, published since 2005, concerning patients aged below 20 years at the time of diagnosis of essential thrombocythemia or polycythemia vera. We identified 396 cases of essential thrombocythemia and 75 of polycythemia vera. The median age at diagnosis was 9.3 and 12 years, respectively, and females constituted 57.6% and 45% of the groups, respectively. Half of the patients were asymptomatic at diagnosis. The proportion of so-called triple negativity was high: 57% in essential thrombocythemia and 73% in polycythemia vera. The incidence of thrombosis during the follow-up was 9.3% in patients with polycythemia vera and less, 3.8%, in those with essential thrombocythemia. Venous events were predominant (84.2%), with hemorrhagic episodes being rarer (<5%). The risk of evolution also seemed low (2% to myelofibrosis and no reports of acute leukemia), but the median follow-up was only 50 months. Survival curves were not available. Half of the patients received an antithrombotic drug and 40.5% received a cytoreductive drug. All data should be analyzed with care because of the proportion of missing data (10.7% to 74.7%). This review highlights interesting points concerning this population of young patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms, including that such patients were identified as negative for all common driver mutations, but also shows the need for larger contemporary cohorts with longer follow-up to assess the true prognosis of these patients.

Calreticulin mutation analysis in non-mutated Janus kinase 2 essential thrombocythemia patients in Chiang Mai University: analysis of three methods and clinical correlations

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective was to determine the prevalence of calreticulin (CALR) mutation in patients with non-JAK2V617F mutated essential thrombocythemia (ET). The secondary objectives were to evaluate the accuracy of CALR mutation analysis by high-resolution melting (HRM) analysis and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) compared with DNA sequencing and to compare clinical characteristics of CALR mutated and JAK2V617F mutated ET.

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study involving ET patients registered at Chiang Mai University in the period September 2015-September 2017 who were aged more than 2 years, and did not harbor JAK2V617F mutation. The presence of CALR mutation was established by DNA sequencing, HRM, and real-time PCR for type 1 and type 2 mutation. Clinical data were compared with that from ET patients with mutated JAK2V617F.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight patients were enrolled onto the study. CALR mutations were found in 10 patients (35.7%). Three patients had type 1 mutation, 5 patients had type 2 mutation, 1 patient had type 18 mutation, and 1 patients had novel mutations (c.1093 C-G, c.1098_1131 del, c.1135 G-A). HRM could differentiate between the types of mutation in complete agreement with DNA sequencing. Patients with a CALR mutation showed a significantly greater male predominance and had a higher platelet count when compared with 42 JAK2V617F patients.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of CALR mutation in JAK2V617F-negative ET in this study is 35.7%. HRM is an effective method of detecting CALR mutation and is a more advantageous method of screening for CALR mutation.

Essential Thrombocythemia in a Two-year-old Child, Responsive to Hydroxyurea but Not Aspirin

Essential thrombocythemia (ET) is a myeloproliferative neoplasm that occurs mostly in patients above the age of 50 years. Its incidence in children is very rare, with around 100 cases reported in the literature. High-risk patients are defined by previous life threatening major thrombotic or severe hemorrhagic complication or age > 60. Those patients probably benefit from cytoreductive therapy. On the other hand, antiplatelet drugs are recommended for patients with low risk group. Although rare, ET should be considered in the differential diagnosis of persistent thrombocytosis in children, even at a very young age. A constellation of clinical, pathologic, and molecular testing are essential for diagnosis. Given the rarity of these cases, there is currently no consensus for treatment guidelines in children, especially in asymptomatic patients. We describe a case of a two-year old girl who presented with unexplained, isolated thrombocytosis which persisted for eight years. Bone marrow biopsy demonstrated typical features of ET. Over the course of the disease, hydroxyurea, but not aspirin, showed better control of symptoms and lowered the platelets level.

Chasing down the triple-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms: Implications for molecular diagnostics

The majority of patients with classical myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) of polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis harbor distinct disease-driving mutations within the JAK2, CALR, or MPL genes. The term triple-negative has been recently applied to those MPN without evidence of these consistent mutations, prompting whole or targeted exome sequencing approaches to determine the driver mutational status of this subgroup. These strategies have identified numerous novel mutations that occur in alternative exons of both JAK2 and MPL, the majority of which result in functional activation. Current molecular diagnostic approaches may possess insufficient coverage to detect these alternative mutations, prompting further consideration of targeted exon sequencing into routine diagnostic practice. How to incorporate these illuminating findings into the expanding molecular diagnostic algorithm for MPN requires continual attention.

Thrombopoietin Measurement as a Key Component in the Evaluation of Pediatric Thrombocytosis

JAK2, MPL, and CALR mutations, which underlie essential thrombocythemia (ET) in most adults, are infrequent in children. Consequently, additional tests are needed to confirm pediatric ET diagnoses. We report a child with suspected ET and normal JAK2, MPL, and CALR analyses. Serum thrombopoietin (TPO) was markedly elevated, leading to analysis of the TPO gene, TPHO, which contains an upstream open reading frame (uORF) known to repress THPO translation. Sequencing revealed a de novo, germline stopgain mutation in the uORF, explaining the elevated TPO and thrombocytosis. This finding suggests that screening TPO levels and, if elevated, THPO 5' UTR sequencing could be diagnostic.