1
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Madsen A, de Silva S. Societies with fission-fusion dynamics as complex adaptive systems: the importance of scale. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230175. [PMID: 39034708 PMCID: PMC11293855 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
In this article, we argue that social systems with fission-fusion (FF) dynamics are best characterized within a complex adaptive systems (CAS) framework. We discuss how different endogenous and exogenous factors drive scale-dependent network properties across temporal, spatial and social domains. Importantly, this view treats the dynamics themselves as objects of study, rather than variously defined notions of static 'social groups' that have hitherto dominated thinking in behavioural ecology. CAS approaches allow us to interrogate FF dynamics in taxa that do not conform to more traditional conceptualizations of sociality and encourage us to pose new types of questions regarding the sources of stability and change in social systems, distinguishing regular variations from those that would lead to system-level reorganization. This article is part of the theme issue 'Connected interactions: enriching food web research by spatial and social interactions'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Madsen
- Department of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, CA92093-0021, USA
| | - Shermin de Silva
- Department of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, CA92093-0021, USA
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2
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Brennan IG, Chapple DG, Keogh JS, Donnellan S. Evolutionary bursts drive morphological novelty in the world's largest skinks. Curr Biol 2024:S0960-9822(24)00943-6. [PMID: 39137786 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Animal phenotypes evolve and diverge as a result of differing selective pressures and drift. These processes leave unique signatures in patterns of trait evolution, impacting the tempo and mode of morphological macroevolution. While there is a broad understanding of the history of some organismal traits (e.g., body size), there is little consensus about the evolutionary mode of most others. This includes the relative contribution of prolonged (Darwinian gradualist) and episodic (Simpsonian jump) changes toward the evolution of novel morphologies. Here, we use new exon-capture and linear morphological datasets to investigate the tempo and mode of morphological evolution in Australo-Melanesian Tiliquini skinks. We generate a well-supported time-calibrated phylogenomic tree from ∼400 nuclear markers for more than 100 specimens, including undescribed diversity, and provide unprecedented resolution of the rapid Miocene diversification of these lizards. By collecting a morphological dataset that encompasses the lizard body plan (19 traits across the head, body, limb, and tail), we are able to identify that most traits evolve conservatively, but infrequent evolutionary bursts result in morphological novelty. These phenotypic discontinuities occur via rapid rate increases along individual branches, inconsistent with both gradualistic and punctuated equilibrial evolutionary modes. Instead, this "punctuated gradualism" has resulted in the rapid evolution of blue-tongued giants and armored dwarves in the ∼20 million years since colonizing Australia. These results outline the evolutionary pathway toward new morphologies and highlight the heterogeneity of evolutionary tempo and mode, even within individual traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian G Brennan
- Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; Australian National University, Division of Ecology & Evolution, Linnaeus Way, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.
| | - David G Chapple
- Monash University, School of Biological Sciences, Wellington Road, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - J Scott Keogh
- Australian National University, Division of Ecology & Evolution, Linnaeus Way, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia
| | - Stephen Donnellan
- The University of Adelaide, School of Biological Sciences, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; Australian Museum, Australian Museum Research Institute, William Street, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
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3
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Lin FC, Lin SM, Godfrey SS. Hidden social complexity behind vocal and acoustic communication in non-avian reptiles. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230200. [PMID: 38768204 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Social interactions are inevitable in the lives of most animals, since most essential behaviours require interaction with conspecifics, such as mating and competing for resources. Non-avian reptiles are typically viewed as solitary animals that predominantly use their vision and olfaction to communicate with conspecifics. Nevertheless, in recent years, evidence is mounting that some reptiles can produce sounds and have the potential for acoustic communication. Reptiles that can produce sound have an additional communicative channel (in addition to visual/olfactory channels), which could suggest they have a higher communicative complexity, the evolution of which is assumed to be driven by the need of social interactions. Thus, acoustic reptiles may provide an opportunity to unveil the true social complexity of reptiles that are usually thought of as solitary. This review aims to reveal the hidden social interactions behind the use of sounds in non-avian reptiles. Our review suggests that the potential of vocal and acoustic communication and the complexity of social interactions may be underestimated in non-avian reptiles, and that acoustic reptiles may provide a great opportunity to uncover the coevolution between sociality and communication in non-avian reptiles. This article is part of the theme issue 'The power of sound: unravelling how acoustic communication shapes group dynamics'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-Chun Lin
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago , Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Si-Min Lin
- School of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University , Taipei, Taiwan
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4
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Freiburger T, Miller N, Skinner M. Olfactory self-recognition in two species of snake. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20240125. [PMID: 38565155 PMCID: PMC10987230 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.0125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Mark tests, in which an animal uses a mirror to locate and examine an otherwise unnoticeable mark on its own body, are commonly used to assess self-recognition, which may have implications for self-awareness. Recently, several olfactory-reliant species have appeared to pass odour-based versions of the mark test, though it has never been attempted in reptiles. We conducted an odour-based mark test on two species of snakes, Eastern gartersnakes and ball pythons, with widely divergent ecologies (i.e. terrestrial foragers that communally brumate versus semi-arboreal ambush predators that do not). We find that gartersnakes, but not ball pythons, pass the test, and a range of control tests suggest this is based on self-recognition. Gartersnakes are more social than ball pythons, supporting recent suggestions that social species are more likely to self-recognize. These results open the door to examination of the ecology of self-recognition, and suggest that this ability may evolve in response to species-specific ecological challenges, some of which may align with complexity of social structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy Freiburger
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3C5
| | - Noam Miller
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3C5
| | - Morgan Skinner
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3C5
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5
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Kuroda KO, Fukumitsu K, Kurachi T, Ohmura N, Shiraishi Y, Yoshihara C. Parental brain through time: The origin and development of the neural circuit of mammalian parenting. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1534:24-44. [PMID: 38426943 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
This review consolidates current knowledge on mammalian parental care, focusing on its neural mechanisms, evolutionary origins, and derivatives. Neurobiological studies have identified specific neurons in the medial preoptic area as crucial for parental care. Unexpectedly, these neurons are characterized by the expression of molecules signaling satiety, such as calcitonin receptor and BRS3, and overlap with neurons involved in the reproductive behaviors of males but not females. A synthesis of comparative ecology and paleontology suggests an evolutionary scenario for mammalian parental care, possibly stemming from male-biased guarding of offspring in basal vertebrates. The terrestrial transition of tetrapods led to prolonged egg retention in females and the emergence of amniotes, skewing care toward females. The nocturnal adaptation of Mesozoic mammalian ancestors reinforced maternal care for lactation and thermal regulation via endothermy, potentially introducing metabolic gate control in parenting neurons. The established maternal care may have served as the precursor for paternal and cooperative care in mammals and also fostered the development of group living, which may have further contributed to the emergence of empathy and altruism. These evolution-informed working hypotheses require empirical validation, yet they offer promising avenues to investigate the neural underpinnings of mammalian social behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumi O Kuroda
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kansai Fukumitsu
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- Department of Physiology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Takuma Kurachi
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- Department of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nami Ohmura
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- Center for Brain, Mind and Kansei Sciences Research, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yuko Shiraishi
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- Kawamura Gakuen Woman's University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Chihiro Yoshihara
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Kanagawa, Japan
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6
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Tetzlaff SJ, Vizentin‐Bugoni J, Sperry JH, Davis MA, Clark RW, Repp RA, Schuett GW. Fission-fusion dynamics in the social networks of a North American pitviper. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10339. [PMID: 37554395 PMCID: PMC10405236 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Many animal species exist in fission-fusion societies, where the size and composition of conspecific groups change spatially and temporally. To help investigate such phenomena, social network analysis (SNA) has emerged as a powerful conceptual and analytical framework for assessing patterns of interconnectedness and quantifying group-level interactions. We leveraged behavioral observations via radiotelemetry and genotypic data from a long-term (>10 years) study on the pitviper Crotalus atrox (western diamondback rattlesnake) and used SNA to quantify the first robust demonstration of social network structures for any free-living snake. Group-level interactions among adults in this population resulted in structurally modular networks (i.e., distinct clusters of interacting individuals) for fidelis use of communal winter dens (denning network), mating behaviors (pairing network), and offspring production (parentage network). Although the structure of each network was similar, the size and composition of groups varied among them. Specifically, adults associated with moderately sized social groups at winter dens but often engaged in reproductive behaviors-both at and away from dens-with different and fewer partners. Additionally, modules formed by individuals in the pairing network were frequently different from those in the parentage network, likely due to multiple mating, long-term sperm storage by females, and resultant multiple paternity. Further evidence for fission-fusion dynamics exhibited by this population-interactions were rare when snakes were dispersing to and traversing their spring-summer home ranges (to which individuals show high fidelity), despite ample opportunities to associate with numerous conspecifics that had highly overlapping ranges. Taken together, we show that long-term datasets incorporating SNA with spatial and genetic information provide robust and unique insights to understanding the social structure of cryptic taxa that are understudied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha J. Tetzlaff
- U.S. Army ERDC‐CERLChampaignIllinoisUSA
- Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research InstituteUniversity of Illinois Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Jeferson Vizentin‐Bugoni
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Biologia Animal, Instituto de BiologiaUniversidade Federal de PelotasPelotasBrazil
| | - Jinelle H. Sperry
- U.S. Army ERDC‐CERLChampaignIllinoisUSA
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignUrbanaIllinoisUSA
| | - Mark A. Davis
- Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research InstituteUniversity of Illinois Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignUrbanaIllinoisUSA
| | - Rulon W. Clark
- Chiricahua Desert MuseumRodeoNew MexicoUSA
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | | | - Gordon W. Schuett
- Chiricahua Desert MuseumRodeoNew MexicoUSA
- Department of Biology, Neuroscience InstituteGeorgia State UniversityAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
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7
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Bartolomé A, Carazo P, Font E. Environmental enrichment for reptiles in European zoos: Current status and perspectives. Anim Welf 2023; 32:e48. [PMID: 38487426 PMCID: PMC10936270 DOI: 10.1017/awf.2023.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Zoos and aquaria are paying increasing attention to environmental enrichment, which has proven an effective tool for the improvement of animal welfare. However, several ongoing issues have hampered progress in environmental enrichment research. Foremost among these is the taxonomic bias, which hinders our understanding of the value of enrichment for neglected groups, such as reptiles. In this study, we evaluated the status of environmental enrichment for reptiles in European zoos using a survey approach. A total of 121 zoos (32% response rate) completed our main survey, focusing on the use of different enrichment types for reptiles. We found significant differences in the use and/or type of enrichment between reptile groups. Tortoises (family Testudinidae) and monitor lizards (genus Varanus) were the most enriched taxa while venomous snakes were the least. The enrichment types most used across taxa were structural/habitat design and dietary. A second, more detailed, questionnaire followed, where participants were questioned about specific enrichment techniques. A total of 42 enrichment methods were reported, with two being represented across all taxa: increasing structural/thermal complexity and enrichment objects. Finally, we present information from participating zoos on enrichment goals, assessment methods, sources of information for enrichment ideas, and whether enrichment for reptiles is considered essential and/or implemented routinely. Results suggest that, although usage is widespread across European zoos, our understanding of enrichment for reptiles needs to be re-evaluated, since many of the techniques reported tread a fine line between basic husbandry and actual enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Bartolomé
- Ethology lab, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | - Pau Carazo
- Ethology lab, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | - Enrique Font
- Ethology lab, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Spain
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8
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Zdunek P, Jarmoliński M. Microhabitat sharing for basking between squamate species in Poland. HERPETOZOA 2023. [DOI: 10.3897/herpetozoa.36.e94064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Aggregations (e.g. group basking) by snakes are usually limited to specific life cycle phases (e.g. mating) or are a consequence of drastic environmental changes (e.g. habitat destruction), high prey densities or highly limited resources within an environment (e.g. basking sites, wintering dens). Here, we report intra- and interspecific observations of four reptile species (primarily Natrix natrix and Vipera berus) sharing basking sites at the confluence of the rivers Dunajec and Poprad near the town of Stary Sącz in southern Poland. From a total of 84 records in the field between 2020–2022, there were 11 interactions from 24 July 2020 to 1 May 2022. Previous studies have indicated direct competition or interference in many species, which we did not observe. There is a noticeable lack of such observations of microhabitat sharing for basking between squamate species in scientific literature. Hence, the accumulation of such observations has the potential to reveal new insights into the behaviour and ecology of N. natrix and V. berus.
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9
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Labra A, Zapata A. Response of the weeping lizard to distress calls: the effect of witnessing predation. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:953-961. [PMID: 36681753 PMCID: PMC10066144 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01743-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Escaping from predation saves life, but costs energy and time. The "threat-sensitive predator-avoidance" hypothesis proposes that prey may modulate their antipredator responses, and thus the associated costs, in accordance with the magnitude of predation risk. This process requires that prey accurately assess this risk by decoding available information from various sources. For example, distress calls are uttered by prey when a predator traps them and can serve as public information on predation risk. Such is the case for the weeping lizard whose distress calls trigger immobility in conspecifics. Here, we tested whether this antipredator response of the weeping lizard is modulated by witnessing predation. We exposed lizards to distress calls alone or paired with models of a prey (conspecific), a predator (snake), or a predatory event (a snake subjugating the conspecific). Data show that the sole presence of the predator or prey paired with distress calls seems not to modulate the antipredator responses. Contrarily, witnessing a predatory event associated with calls intensified antipredator responses; lizards reduced their activity for longer and avoided proximity to the stimuli, which may decrease predation risk by reducing the likelihood of being detected by the predator. We conclude that the weeping lizard can use multisensorial public information to assess predation risk and modulate its antipredator responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonieta Labra
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway. .,NGO Vida Nativa, Santiago, Chile.
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10
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Utsumi K, Staley C, Núñez H, Eifler MA, Eifler DA. The social system of the lava lizard, Microlophus atacamensis: the interplay between social structure and social organization. REVISTA CHILENA DE HISTORIA NATURAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s40693-022-00113-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Animal social systems can be described through four main components: social structure, social organization, mating system, and care system. Social structure describes the relationships between individuals in a population, while social organization describes the group composition, size, and spatiotemporal variation of a population. We use the frameworks of social structure and social organization to study the social system of Microlophus atacamensis, a lizard found in the rocky intertidal zone along the Chilean coast. The area M. atacamensis inhabits poses specific challenges stemming from their use of two distinct habitat types in the intertidal zone: they forage in the cool areas near the water’s edge and use large rocks in more inland areas for basking and refuge.
Methods
Our assessment of their social system focused on two separate populations: one to characterize social structure by means of focal observations and social network analysis, and a second to assess social organization via home range and core area analyses. Further, we examined the social system in two habitat types that comprise the intertidal zone: cobble fields and interspersed large rocks.
Results
Social network analysis revealed an interconnected network with a few highly central individuals. Body size influenced the outcomes of aggressive interactions, with interactions being more common in cobble fields where males had more associates and more repeated interactions than females. Spatial analyses revealed that the social organization of M. atacamensis is characterized by (1) high home range overlap, specifically in the cobble fields and (2) relatively exclusive core areas dispersed across both habitat types.
Conclusion
A social system is composed of both cooperative and competitive behaviors. While our study focused on competitive interactions, the extent and influence of cooperative behaviors is still unclear and merits future research. We suggest that M. atacamensis has a variable social system in which territoriality on large rocks affects access to stationary resources in that habitat (e.g., basking sites and refuges), while competition in the cobble fields could lay the foundation for a system of dominance relationships controlling access to variable food resources in cobble field areas of the intertidal zone.
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11
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Inferring Social Interactions Over a Lifespan from Space-Use Patterns in a Tropical Agamid. J HERPETOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1670/20-068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Scat piling and strong frugivory of the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi (Günther, 1874). BMC ZOOL 2022; 7:22. [PMID: 37170334 PMCID: PMC10127053 DOI: 10.1186/s40850-022-00125-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
In lacertid lizards from Mediterranean islands, frugivory is common, particularly under prey scarcity, a characteristic of small islands. In several populations, the diet of the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, is extremely variable and includes fleshy fruits. However, frugivory is sporadic and there are very few examples of dominant fruit consumption.
Results
We describe the existence of an extraordinary fruit consumption of a single plant species, the juniper, Juniperus phoenicea, by the Balearic lizard, P. lilfordi. In addition, for the first time in Lacertidae, we describe the existence of scat piling in the population of these lizards inhabiting Cabrera Island (Balearic Islands, Spain). Scat piling was detected in an isolated location with hundreds of scats deposited by several individuals at a particular place.
Conclusions
The high population density of lizards at the island of Cabrera and the great versatility of foraging behavior of this species allows us to hypothesize that scat piles could act as an attractor for numerous individuals, that is, as inadvertent social information. If that hypothesis is correct, it would result in the concentration of several individuals foraging on a single or a few ripening plants. We cannot, however, rule out that individuals concentrated due to the scarcity of ripening plants in other areas, without any influence of the presence of several lizards, as attractors to the site. Our findings modify previous descriptions of the diet of the Balearic lizard in Cabrera made with smaller samples. In some places and periods of the year, frugivory on a single plant species can be extremely intense and only large sample sizes of scats allow to find these particular trends in the foraging ecology of insular lizards.
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Clulow S, Clulow J, Marcec-Greaves R, Della Togna G, Calatayud NE. Common goals, different stages: the state of the ARTs for reptile and amphibian conservation. Reprod Fertil Dev 2022; 34:i-ix. [PMID: 35275052 DOI: 10.1071/rdv34n5_fo] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphibians and reptiles are highly threatened vertebrate taxa with large numbers of species threatened with extinction. With so many species at risk, conservation requires the efficient and cost-effective application of all the tools available so that as many species as possible are assisted. Biobanking of genetic material in genetic resource banks (GRBs) in combination with assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to retrieve live animals from stored materials are two powerful, complementary tools in the conservation toolbox for arresting and reversing biodiversity decline for both amphibians and reptiles. However, the degree of development of the ARTs and cryopreservation technologies differ markedly between these two groups. These differences are explained in part by different perceptions of the taxa, but also to differing reproductive anatomy and biology between the amphibians and reptiles. Artificial fertilisation with cryopreserved sperm is becoming a more widely developed and utilised technology for amphibians. However, in contrast, artificial insemination with production of live progeny has been reported in few reptiles, and while sperm have been successfully cryopreserved, there are still no reports of the production of live offspring generated from cryopreserved sperm. In both amphibians and reptiles, a focus on sperm cryopreservation and artificial fertilisation or artificial insemination has been at the expense of the development and application of more advanced technologies such as cryopreservation of the female germline and embryonic genome, or the use of sophisticated stem cell/primordial germ cell cryopreservation and transplantation approaches. This review accompanies the publication of ten papers on amphibians and twelve papers on reptiles reporting advances in ARTs and biobanking for the herpetological taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Clulow
- Centre for Conservation Ecology & Genomics, Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - John Clulow
- University of Newcastle, Conservation Biology Research Group, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | | | - Gina Della Togna
- Universidad Interamericana de Panama, Direccion de Investigacion, Campus Central, Avenida Ricardo J. Alfaro, Panama City, Panama; and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project, Panama
| | - Natalie E Calatayud
- San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Beckman Center for Conservation Research, 15600 San Pasqual valley Road, Escondido, CA 92025, USA; and Conservation Science Network, 24 Thomas Street, Mayfield, NSW 2304, Australia
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Bouffet-Halle A, Yang W, Gardner MG, Whiting MJ, Wapstra E, Uller T, While GM. Characterisation and cross-amplification of sex-specific genetic markers in Australasian Egerniinae lizards and their implications for understanding the evolution of sex determination and social complexity. AUST J ZOOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1071/zo21023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Riley JL, Baxter‐Gilbert J, Whiting MJ, Cherry M. Partitioned parturition: Birthing asynchrony in cordylid lizards. J Zool (1987) 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. L. Riley
- Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa
- Department of Biology Dalhousie University Halifax NS Canada
- Department of Biology Mount Allison University Sackville NB Canada
| | - J. Baxter‐Gilbert
- Centre for Invasion Biology Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa
| | - M. J. Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences Macquarie University Sydney NSW Australia
| | - M. Cherry
- Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa
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16
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Riley JL, Noble DWA, Stow AJ, Bolton PE, While GM, Dennison S, Byrne RW, Whiting MJ. Socioecology of the Australian Tree Skink (Egernia striolata). Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.722455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is great diversity in social behavior across the animal kingdom. Understanding the factors responsible for this diversity can help inform theory about how sociality evolves and is maintained. The Australian Tree Skink (Egernia striolata) exhibits inter- and intra-population variability in sociality and is therefore a good system for informing models of social evolution. Here, we conducted a multi-year study of a Tree Skink population to describe intra-population variation in the social organization and mating system of this species. Skinks aggregated in small groups of 2–5 individuals, and these aggregations were typically associated with shared shelter sites (crevices and hollows within rocks and trees). Aggregations were typically made up of one or more adult females and, often, one male and/or juvenile(s). Social network and spatial overlap analyses showed that social associations were strongly biased toward kin. Tree skinks also exhibited high site fidelity regardless of age or sex. There were high levels of genetic monogamy observed with most females (87%) and males (68%) only breeding with a single partner. Our results indicate that Tree Skinks reside in small family groups and are monogamous, which corresponds with existing research across populations. Similar to previous work, our study area consisted of discrete habitat patches (i.e., rock outcrops, trees, or both), which likely limits offspring dispersal and promotes social tolerance between parents and their offspring. Our study clearly demonstrates that there is intra-population variability in Tree Skink social behavior, but it also provides evidence that there is a high degree of inter-population consistency in sociality across their geographic range. We also highlight promising possible avenues for future research, specifically discussing the importance of studying the nature and extent of Tree Skink parental care and quantifying the fitness outcomes of kin-based sociality in this species, which are topics that will further our understanding of the mechanisms underlying variation in vertebrate social behavior.
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Mohanty NP, Wagener C, Herrel A, Thaker M. The ecology of sleep in non-avian reptiles. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:505-526. [PMID: 34708504 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Sleep is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom and yet displays considerable variation in its extent and form in the wild. Ecological factors, such as predation, competition, and microclimate, therefore are likely to play a strong role in shaping characteristics of sleep. Despite the potential for ecological factors to influence various aspects of sleep, the ecological context of sleep in non-avian reptiles remains understudied and without systematic direction. In this review, we examine multiple aspects of reptilian sleep, including (i) habitat selection (sleep sites and their spatio-temporal distribution), (ii) individual-level traits, such as behaviour (sleep postures), morphology (limb morphometrics and body colour), and physiology (sleep architecture), as well as (iii) inter-individual interactions (intra- and inter-specific). Throughout, we discuss the evidence of predation, competition, and thermoregulation in influencing sleep traits and the possible evolutionary consequences of these sleep traits for reptile sociality, morphological specialisation, and habitat partitioning. We also review the ways in which sleep ecology interacts with urbanisation, biological invasions, and climate change. Overall, we not only provide a systematic evaluation of the conceptual and taxonomic biases in the existing literature on reptilian sleep, but also use this opportunity to organise the various ecological hypotheses for sleep characteristics. By highlighting the gaps and providing a prospectus of research directions, our review sets the stage for understanding sleep ecology in the natural world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitya P Mohanty
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
| | - Carla Wagener
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, 7600, South Africa
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, MECADEV UMR7179 CNRS/MNHN, Paris, France
| | - Maria Thaker
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
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18
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Baird TA, York JR. Does courtship behavior predict parentage in Collared Lizards? Influence of male social status and habitat structure. Evol Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-021-10136-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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19
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Horváth G, Sztruhala SS, Balázs G, Herczeg G. Population divergence in aggregation and sheltering behaviour in surface- versus cave-adapted Asellus aquaticus (Crustacea: Isopoda). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Aggregation (gathering together) and sheltering (hiding in cover) are basic behaviours that can reduce the risk of predation. However, both behaviours have costs, such as increased competition over resources and high prevalence of contact-spread parasites (aggregation) or lost opportunities for foraging and mating (sheltering). Therefore, variation in these behaviours is expected between populations with varying levels of predation risk. We compared aggregation and sheltering in surface- (various predators) and cave-adapted (no predator) populations of the isopod Asellus aquaticus in a common garden experiment. Given that the cave environment is constantly dark, we also tested for population variation in light-induced behavioural plasticity. Variation in sheltering was explained by habitat type: cave individuals sheltered less than surface individuals. We found high between-population variation in aggregation with or without shelters and their light-induced plasticity, which was not explained by habitat type. Cave individuals decreased (habituation) whereas surface individuals increased sheltering with time (sensitization). We suggest that population variation in sheltering is driven by predation, whereas variation in aggregation must be driven by other, unaccounted environmental factors, in a similar manner to light-induced behavioural plasticity. Based on habituation/sensitization patterns, we suggest that predation-adapted populations are more sensitive to disturbance related to routine laboratory procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Horváth
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Sára Sarolta Sztruhala
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gergely Balázs
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Herczeg
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
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20
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Bauwens D, Claus K. Basking aggregations in the adder (Vipera berus): attraction to conspecific cues or to scarce suitable microhabitats? J ETHOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-021-00699-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Martín J, Raya-García E, Ortega J, López P. Offspring and adult chemosensory recognition by an amphisbaenian reptile may allow maintaining familiar links in the fossorial environment. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10780. [PMID: 33604182 PMCID: PMC7866894 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Kin recognition is a phenomenon with an important function in maintaining cohesive social groups in animals. Several studies have examined parent–offspring recognition in species with direct parental care. Few studies have, however, explored parent–offspring recognition in animals that, at best, only show apparent indirect parental care, such as some reptiles. In this study, we investigated reciprocal parent–offspring recognition in the fossorial amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni, a viviparous species that shows potential stable ‘family groups’ in the form of parent-offspring long-term associations. We examined whether adult males and females could discriminate via chemical cues between familiar juveniles which associate with them within their family groups, and are potentially their offspring, to that of unfamiliar juveniles, and whether juveniles could discriminate between familiar adult males and females of their family group (probably their parents) and unfamiliar unrelated adults. We measured tongue flick behavior to study chemosensory responses to the scent of conspecifics. We found that adult female amphisbaenians, but not males, could discriminate between scents of familiar and unfamiliar juveniles. Juvenile amphisbaenians did not discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar adult females, but recognize familiar from unfamiliar males. We discuss our results of parent–offspring recognition according to its potential social function in an ecological fossorial context where visibility is limited and chemosensory kin recognition may contribute to the establishment of stable family groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Martín
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ernesto Raya-García
- Laboratorio de Herpetología, Instituto de Investigaciones Sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Jesús Ortega
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar López
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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22
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Baeckens S, Whiting MJ. Investment in chemical signalling glands facilitates the evolution of sociality in lizards. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202438. [PMID: 33593182 PMCID: PMC7935108 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of sociality and traits that correlate with, or predict, sociality, have been the focus of considerable recent study. In order to reduce the social conflict that ultimately comes with group living, and foster social tolerance, individuals need reliable information about group members and potential rivals. Chemical signals are one such source of information and are widely used in many animal taxa, including lizards. Here, we take a phylogenetic comparative approach to test the hypothesis that social grouping correlates with investment in chemical signalling. We used the presence of epidermal glands as a proxy of chemical investment and considered social grouping as the occurrence of social groups containing both adults and juveniles. Based on a dataset of 911 lizard species, our models strongly supported correlated evolution between social grouping and chemical signalling glands. The rate of transition towards social grouping from a background of ‘epidermal glands present’ was an order of a magnitude higher than from a background of ‘no epidermal glands’. Our results highlight the potential importance of chemical signalling during the evolution of sociality and the need for more focused studies on the role of chemical communication in facilitating information transfer about individual and group identity, and ameliorating social conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Baeckens
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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23
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Santoyo-Brito E, Perea-Fox S, Núñez H, Fox S. Maternal care and secretive behaviour of neonates in the highly social lizard Liolaemus leopardinus (Squamata: Liolaemidae) from the central Chilean Andes may relate to size-specific bird predation. BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Predation prompts the evolution of antipredator traits, molds behaviour, and can lead to the evolution of parental care. We investigated parental care and predator-avoidance behaviour of neonates in the social lizard Liolaemus leopardinus. We used clay models to quantify bird predation pressure on L. leopardinus. Predation was significantly greater on small models and models in open habitat. Late-term pregnant females left their social groups on rock outcrops and gave birth in solitary underneath flat rocks in vegetated microhabitat. Mothers stayed with their litters inside natal chambers for at least 24 h and when they left, sealed the neonates inside. Mothers remained close to their natal chamber and neonates when neonates emerged. Neonates and young yearlings moved significantly less and occupied vegetated microhabitat significantly more than older age classes. We suggest that the maternal behaviour and secretive behaviour of neonates may be related to the heavy avian predation on neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Santoyo-Brito
- Department of Integrative Biology and Collection of Vertebrates, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Susana Perea-Fox
- Department of Languages and Literatures, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Herman Núñez
- Area Zoología, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Stanley F. Fox
- Department of Integrative Biology and Collection of Vertebrates, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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24
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Santoyo-Brito E, Núñez H, Cooper WE, Fox SF. Comparison of Escape Behavior Between Solitary and Grouped Liolaemus leopardinus Lizards from the Central Chilean Andes. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-19-00057.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Santoyo-Brito
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Herman Núñez
- Area Zoología, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Stanley F. Fox
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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25
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Hierarchies and Dominance Behaviors in European Pond Turtle ( Emys orbicularis galloitalica) Hatchlings in a Controlled Environment. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10091510. [PMID: 32859002 PMCID: PMC7552232 DOI: 10.3390/ani10091510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Few species of reptiles are known to establish stable social structures and among these, chelonians provided scarce and conflicting results. Moreover, studies on turtles are usually performed on adult individuals. In this study, we checked whether and when hatchlings of the European Pond Turtle (Emys orbicularis galloitalica) established stable hierarchical structures in their first year of life, whether hierarchies were stable in time and how steady they were. We also verified whether social ranks were associated to the individuals' size. We observed dyadic interactions daily within three small groups of turtles reared in a controlled environment for seven months. After two months, the hatchlings started to interact and progressively established stable hierarchical structures. However, the effectiveness of the three types of observed aggressive behaviors in reversing social ranks was low and the resulting hierarchies were flat. We did not find a significant effect of the turtles' size on their interactions' outcome and hierarchy structure. Our results provide clear evidence of the development and the characteristics of social behaviors in young reptiles in captivity. This study could be a starting point for investigating social structures in wild populations.
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26
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Martín J, Raya García E, Ortega J, López P. How to maintain underground social relationships? Chemosensory sex, partner and self recognition in a fossorial amphisbaenian. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237188. [PMID: 32813706 PMCID: PMC7437723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintaining social relationships depends on the ability to recognize partners or group members against other individuals. This is especially important in animals with relatively stable social groups. The amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni is a semi blind fossorial reptile that spends its entire life underground where it interacts with mates and social partners. In this environment, visual cues are limited. Chemosensory cues may rather allow conspecific social and partner recognition. We recorded the number of tongue-flick (TF) rates of T. wiegmanni amphisbaenians to scents of both sexes with different pairing social bonds (familiar vs. unfamiliar) presented on cotton swabs to test discrimination of social groups. As seen from a rise in the number of TFs, males discriminated unfamiliar females from unfamiliar males. This suggests that chemical cues may be used by males to locate new mates. In contrast, females detected scent of unfamiliar conspecifics, but did not show sex discrimination. Both males and females discriminated the scent of an individual with which they had formed a pair bond from an unfamiliar individual of the same sex as the partner. Also, males, but not females, were capable of self-recognition, suggesting that scent marks of males in home ranges may provide individual information in intrasexual relationships. We conclude that conspecific discrimination based on chemical cues may allow the maintenance of social relationships and relatively stable pairs in fossorial reptiles inhabiting visually restricted environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Martín
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Ernesto Raya García
- Laboratorio de Herpetología, Instituto de Investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia Michoacán, México
| | - Jesús Ortega
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Pilar López
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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27
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Johnston GR, Lanham EJ, Bull CM. United in adversity: Aridity and cold influence aggregation behaviour in a social lizard, Egernia stokesii. AUSTRAL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory R. Johnston
- College of Science & Engineering; Flinders University of South Australia; GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5000 Australia
| | - Elvira J. Lanham
- College of Science & Engineering; Flinders University of South Australia; GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5000 Australia
| | - C. Michael Bull
- College of Science & Engineering; Flinders University of South Australia; GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5000 Australia
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28
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Riley JL, Hudson S, Frenette-Ling C, Davy CM. All together now! Hatching synchrony in freshwater turtles. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-2800-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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29
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Pearson SK, Johnston GR, Bull CM, Fenner AL, Gardner MG. Fine‐scale genetic structuring in a group‐living lizard, the gidgee skink (
Egernia stokesii
). AUSTRAL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Pearson
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University of South Australia GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
| | - Gregory R. Johnston
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University of South Australia GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
- South Australian Museum Adelaide South Australia Australia
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology School of Medicine University of Adelaide Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - C. Michael Bull
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University of South Australia GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
| | - Aaron L. Fenner
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University of South Australia GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
| | - Michael G. Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University of South Australia GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
- South Australian Museum Adelaide South Australia Australia
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30
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Thompson SA, Pearson SK, While GM, Chapple DG, Gardner MG. Scat on the doorstep: Refuge choice in a group‐living lizard is influenced by the presence of scat piles. AUSTRAL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A. Thompson
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
| | - Sarah K. Pearson
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
| | - Geoffrey M. While
- School of Biological Sciences University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - David G. Chapple
- School of Biological Sciences Monash University Clayton Victoria Australia
| | - Michael G. Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering Flinders University GPO Box 2100 Adelaide South Australia 5001Australia
- Evolutionary Biology Unit South Australian Museum Adelaide South Australia Australia
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31
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Van Dyke JU, Thompson MB, Burridge CP, Castelli MA, Clulow S, Dissanayake DSB, Dong CM, Doody JS, Edwards DL, Ezaz T, Friesen CR, Gardner MG, Georges A, Higgie M, Hill PL, Holleley CE, Hoops D, Hoskin CJ, Merry DL, Riley JL, Wapstra E, While GM, Whiteley SL, Whiting MJ, Zozaya SM, Whittington CM. Australian lizards are outstanding models for reproductive biology research. AUST J ZOOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/zo21017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Australian lizards are a diverse group distributed across the continent and inhabiting a wide range of environments. Together, they exhibit a remarkable diversity of reproductive morphologies, physiologies, and behaviours that is broadly representative of vertebrates in general. Many reproductive traits exhibited by Australian lizards have evolved independently in multiple lizard lineages, including sociality, complex signalling and mating systems, viviparity, and temperature-dependent sex determination. Australian lizards are thus outstanding model organisms for testing hypotheses about how reproductive traits function and evolve, and they provide an important basis of comparison with other animals that exhibit similar traits. We review how research on Australian lizard reproduction has contributed to answering broader evolutionary and ecological questions that apply to animals in general. We focus on reproductive traits, processes, and strategies that are important areas of current research, including behaviours and signalling involved in courtship; mechanisms involved in mating, egg production, and sperm competition; nesting and gestation; sex determination; and finally, birth in viviparous species. We use our review to identify important questions that emerge from an understanding of this body of research when considered holistically. Finally, we identify additional research questions within each topic that Australian lizards are well suited for reproductive biologists to address.
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32
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Given the Cold Shoulder: A Review of the Scientific Literature for Evidence of Reptile Sentience. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9100821. [PMID: 31627409 PMCID: PMC6827095 DOI: 10.3390/ani9100821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Reptiles are popular pets around the world, although their welfare requirements in captivity are not always met, due in part to an apparent lack of awareness of their needs. Herein, we searched a selection of the scientific literature for evidence of, and explorations into, reptile sentience. We used these findings to highlight: (1) how reptiles are recognised as being capable of a range of feelings; (2) what implications this has for the pet trade; and (3) what future research is needed to help maximise their captive welfare. We found 37 studies that assumed reptiles to be capable of the following emotions and states; anxiety, stress, distress, excitement, fear, frustration, pain, and suffering. We also found four articles that explored and found evidence for the capacity of reptiles to feel pleasure, emotion, and anxiety. These findings have direct implications for how reptiles are treated in captivity, as a better understanding of their sentience is critical in providing them with the best quality of life possible. Abstract We searched a selection of the scientific literature to document evidence for, and explorations into reptile sentience. The intention of this review was to highlight; (1) to what extent reptile capability for emotions have been documented in the scientific literature; (2) to discuss the implications this evidence has for the trade in reptiles; and (3) to outline what future research is needed to maximise their captive welfare needs. We used 168 keywords associated with sentience, to search through four journal databases and one open-access journal. We recorded studies that explored sentience in reptiles and those that recognised reptile sentience in their experiments. We found that reptiles were assumed to be capable of the following emotions and states; anxiety, distress, excitement, fear, frustration, pain, stress, and suffering, in 37 articles. We also found four articles that explored and found evidence for the capacity of reptiles to feel pleasure, emotion, and anxiety. These findings show that reptiles are considered to be capable of experiencing a range of emotions and states. This has implications for how reptiles are treated in captivity, as a better understanding could help to inform a range of different operational initiatives aimed at reducing negative animal welfare impacts, including improved husbandry and consumer behaviour change programmes.
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33
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Piza-Roca C, Strickland K, Kent N, Frere CH. Presence of kin-biased social associations in a lizard with no parental care: the eastern water dragon (Intellagama lesueurii). Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Numerous studies have observed kin-biased social associations in a variety of species. Many of these studies have focused on species exhibiting parental care, which may facilitate the transmission of the social environment from parents to offspring. This becomes problematic when disentangling whether kin-biased associations are driven by kin recognition, or are a product of transmission of the social environment during ontogeny, or a combination of both. Studying kin-biased associations in systems that lack parental care may aid in addressing this issue. Furthermore, when studying kin-biased social associations, it is important to differentiate whether these originate from preferential choice or occur randomly as a result of habitat use or limited dispersal. Here, we combined high-resolution single-nucleotide polymorphism data with a long-term behavioral data set of a reptile with no parental care to demonstrate that eastern water dragons (Intellagama lesueurii) bias their nonrandom social associations toward their kin. In particular, we found that although the overall social network was not linked to genetic relatedness, individuals associated with kin more than expected given availability in space and also biased social preferences toward kin. This result opens important opportunities for the study of kinship-driven associations without the confounding effect of vertical transmission of social environments. Furthermore, we present a robust multiple-step approach for determining whether kin-biased social associations are a result of active social decisions or random encounters resulting from habitat use and dispersal patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carme Piza-Roca
- Global Change Ecology Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Kasha Strickland
- Global Change Ecology Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Nicola Kent
- Global Change Ecology Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Celine H Frere
- Global Change Ecology Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
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34
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De Meester G, Huyghe K, Van Damme R. Brain size, ecology and sociality: a reptilian perspective. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gilles De Meester
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Katleen Huyghe
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Raoul Van Damme
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Dufour CMS, Pillay N, Avenant N, Watson J, Loire E, Ganem G. Habitat characteristics and species interference influence space use and nest‐site occupancy: implications for social variation in two sister species. OIKOS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.05357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claire M. S. Dufour
- ISEM, CNRS, Univ. of Montpellier, IRD, EPHE Montpellier France
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Science, Univ. of the Witwatersrand Wits South Africa
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Dept of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard Univ Cambridge MA USA
| | - Neville Pillay
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Science, Univ. of the Witwatersrand Wits South Africa
| | - Nico Avenant
- Dept of Mammalogy, National Museum, and Centre for Environmental Management, Univ. of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Johan Watson
- Dept of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs, Biodiversity Research Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Etienne Loire
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR, CMAEE, C2B Montpellier France
| | - Guila Ganem
- ISEM, CNRS, Univ. of Montpellier, IRD, EPHE Montpellier France
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Science, Univ. of the Witwatersrand Wits South Africa
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Riley JL, Guidou C, Fryns C, Mourier J, Leu ST, Noble DWA, Byrne RW, Whiting MJ. Isolation rearing does not constrain social plasticity in a family-living lizard. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Riley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Côme Guidou
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Caroline Fryns
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Johann Mourier
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Labex CORAIL, PSL Université Paris, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Perpignan, France
| | - Stephan T Leu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Daniel W A Noble
- School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Richard W Byrne
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Live bearing promotes the evolution of sociality in reptiles. Nat Commun 2017; 8:2030. [PMID: 29229907 PMCID: PMC5725568 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02220-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying factors responsible for the emergence and evolution of social complexity is an outstanding challenge in evolutionary biology. Here we report results from a phylogenetic comparative analysis of over 1000 species of squamate reptile, nearly 100 of which exhibit facultative forms of group living, including prolonged parent–offspring associations. We show that the evolution of social groupings among adults and juveniles is overwhelmingly preceded by the evolution of live birth across multiple independent origins of both traits. Furthermore, the results suggest that live bearing has facilitated the emergence of social groups that remain stable across years, similar to forms of sociality observed in other vertebrates. These results suggest that live bearing has been a fundamentally important precursor in the evolutionary origins of group living in the squamates. Live birth may be a precursor for parent-offspring associations and subsequent sociality, but the ubiquity of live birth in mammals and parental care in birds precludes testing the relationship in those clades. Here the authors show that live birth, but not egg attendance, is associated with the evolution of social grouping in squamate reptiles.
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Botterill-James T, Halliwell B, McKeown S, Sillince J, Uller T, Wapstra E, While GM. Family aggression in a social lizard. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3502. [PMID: 28615643 PMCID: PMC5471180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03531-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of family living is underpinned by conflict and cooperation between family members. While family groups can be maintained by reducing conflict between parents and offspring, interactions between siblings may play an equally important role. Here, we compared the level of aggressive interactions between siblings to that between parents and their offspring in the family living skink Liopholis whitii. Aggressive interactions occurred much more frequently between siblings and between fathers and offspring than between mothers and their offspring. These results suggest that ecological and social conditions that reduce conflict between siblings and between males and offspring will be fundamental in the evolutionary maintenance and diversification of family living in these lizards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Botterill-James
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Ben Halliwell
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Simon McKeown
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Jacinta Sillince
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Tobias Uller
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Rd, OX1 3PS, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Wapstra
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Geoffrey M While
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia.
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Botterill-James T, Sillince J, Uller T, Chapple DG, Gardner MG, Wapstra E, While GM. Experimental manipulation suggests effect of polyandry but not mate familiarity on within-pair aggression in the social skink, Liopholis whitii. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2302-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Eifler MA, Marchand R, Eifler DA, Malela K. Habitat Use and Activity Patterns in the Nocturnal Gecko,Chondrodactylus turneri. HERPETOLOGICA 2017. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-14-00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rheana Marchand
- Natural Resources Department, Salish Kootenai College, 58138 US Highway 93, Pablo, MT 59855, USA
| | | | - Keoleboge Malela
- Environmental Health Department, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
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Vasconcelos R, Rocha S, Santos X. Sharing refuges on arid islands: ecological and social influence on aggregation behaviour of wall geckos. PeerJ 2017; 5:e2802. [PMID: 28097049 PMCID: PMC5228510 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The extent of social behaviour among reptiles is underappreciated. Two types of aggregations are recognized in lizards: ecological and social, i.e., related to the attraction to a site or to animals of the same species, respectively. As most lizards are territorial, aggregations increase the probability of aggressive interactions among individuals, a density-dependent behaviour. Methods After some spurious observations of aggregation behaviour in the endemic Cabo Verde nocturnal gecko Tarentola substituta, we conducted a field-based study in order to thoroughly characterize it. We sampled 48 transects and 40 10 × 10 m quadrats on São Vicente Island to describe the incidence, size and composition of aggregations and to study the effect of gecko and refuge density, plus refuge quality, on refuge sharing. We hypothesize that when density of animals and scarcity of high-quality refuges is higher, lizards have increased probability of aggregating. We also predict a consistent pattern of size and composition of groups (male–female pairs, only one adult male per group) throughout the year if there is a selected behaviour to avoid agonistic interactions, and low thermal advantage to aggregating individuals. Results We present one of the first evidences of aggregation for Phyllodactylidae geckos. We found that T. substituta forms aggregations around 30–40% of the time, and that refuges are almost always shared by a female-male pair, sometimes with a juvenile, probably a mechanism to avoid aggressive interactions. We also observed that refuge sharing is dependent on refuge quality, as medium–large (thermally more stable and positively selected) rocks are shared much more frequently than small ones, but independent of adult sizes. Refuge sharing is also directly related to the density of geckos and inversely related to the density of high-quality refuges. We found no relation between body temperatures of geckos and refuge sharing when controlling the effect of rock/air temperature, suggesting that huddling does not improve thermoregulation. Discussion Our results suggest that in this harsh environment (rocks reach 46 °C) aggregation incidence is mainly driven by an ecological factor (scarcity of high-quality refuges) and its intersexual composition by social factors (avoidance of agonistic interactions by males, and possible increased reproductive success of the pair). This study sheds some light on the little explored gecko aggregation behaviour and other studies should follow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Vasconcelos
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal; IBE, Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Genética e Inmunología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Vigo , Vigo , Spain
| | - Xavier Santos
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto , Vairão , Portugal
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Halliwell B, Uller T, Chapple DG, Gardner MG, Wapstra E, While GM. Habitat saturation promotes delayed dispersal in a social reptile. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Galoyan EA. Unstable social structure indicates low diversity of relationships in the spotted forest skink Sphenomorphus maculatus. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To the date, we hardly understand what and how affects the social structure in animals. Longevity and social stability must be the key factors influencing the relations among individuals. To test this suggestion, I described the spatial and social structures of the spotted forest skinks (Sphenomorphus maculatus) from southern Vietnam in the breeding seasons of 2008 and 2009. This species is known to have short lifespan and low social stability among seasons. No difference between male and female space use was revealed. Home ranges were 107.7 ± 23.68 m2 in males and 78.9 ± 27.27 m2 in females, and these contained core areas and activity centres within them. Home ranges and their parts overlapped among individuals of all sexes and were used by several residents, although not at the same time. Intrasexual and intersexual relationships were agonistic, more aggressive among males, and characterized by hierarchy with males as dominants and females as subordinates. Dominance status in males was supported by aggression in males and by submission in females. Females avoided sexual encounters, and no affiliation between sexes or mate guarding behaviour were revealed. A poor social behavioural repertoire was limited by aggressive and submissive behaviour, and it was difficult to distinguish sexual courtship from agonistic interactions. Hence, social and spatial structures were relatively simple in comparison with other saurian species and low stability of social composition is the most probable reason of such a social simplicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduard A. Galoyan
- Zoological Museum of Moscow University, Bolshaya Nikitskaya st. 2, Moscow 125009, Russia
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii pr., 33, Moscow 119071, Russia
- Joint Russian-Vietnamese Tropical Research and Technological Centre, Nguyen Van Huyen, Nghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
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Does social environment influence learning ability in a family-living lizard? Anim Cogn 2016; 20:449-458. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1068-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Halliwell B, Uller T, Wapstra E, While GM. Resource distribution mediates social and mating behavior in a family living lizard. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Pearson SK, Bradford TM, Ansari TH, Bull CM, Gardner MG. MHC genotyping from next-generation sequencing: detailed methodology for the gidgee skink, Egernia stokesii. T ROY SOC SOUTH AUST 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/03721426.2016.1216735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. K. Pearson
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
| | - T. M. Bradford
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
| | - T. H. Ansari
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
| | - C. M. Bull
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
| | - M. G. Gardner
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
- Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, Australia
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Peck S, Gardner MG, Seddon JM, Baxter G. Life-history characteristics of the yakka skink, Egernia rugosa, indicate long-term social structure. AUST J ZOOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1071/zo16061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
One lineage of squamates, the Egernia group, has received particular study due to stable aggregations identified in many of the species. Egernia rugosa is a large, terrestrial, viviparous skink and has been reported living communally. To investigate whether this species lives in social aggregations, we examined life-history characteristics in one population within the Mulga Lands bioregion of south-west Queensland. We found this skink used both active and inactive rabbit burrows. Parturition occurred in January/February and took several days to complete, with a mean litter size of 2.4 and a mean snout–vent length (SVL) of 84.5 mm. Six subadult age cohorts were identified. Juveniles took at least five years to reach sexual maturity and lizards had a life expectancy of >12 years. Lizards were found clustered in aggregations of up to 21 individuals (mean = 7.21) of multiple ages. An average of 50% (range = 31–67%) of all individuals within each of the age cohorts were located at their original location for two or more seasons. Dispersal was recorded for older subadult lizards. These characteristics support the hypothesis that E. rugosa aggregations comprise long-term family units; however, genetic analysis would be needed to confirm kin-based associations.
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