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Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
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2
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Skojec C, Earl C, Couch CD, Masonick P, Kawahara AY. Phylogeny and divergence time estimation of Io moths and relatives (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae: Automeris). PeerJ 2024; 12:e17365. [PMID: 38827314 PMCID: PMC11144400 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The saturniid moth genus Automeris includes 145 described species. Their geographic distribution ranges from the eastern half of North America to as far south as Peru. Automeris moths are cryptically colored, with forewings that resemble dead leaves, and conspicuously colored, elaborate eyespots hidden on their hindwings. Despite their charismatic nature, the evolutionary history and relationships within Automeris and between closely related genera, remain poorly understood. In this study, we present the most comprehensive phylogeny of Automeris to date, including 80 of the 145 described species. We also incorporate two morphologically similar hemileucine genera, Pseudautomeris and Leucanella, as well as a morphologically distinct genus, Molippa. We obtained DNA data from both dry-pinned and ethanol-stored museum specimens and conducted Anchored Hybrid Enrichment (AHE) sequencing to assemble a high-quality dataset for phylogenetic analysis. The resulting phylogeny supports Automeris as a paraphyletic genus, with Leucanella and Pseudautomeris nested within, with the most recent common ancestor dating back to 21 mya. This study lays the foundation for future research on various aspects of Automeris biology, including geographical distribution patterns, potential drivers of speciation, and ecological adaptations such as antipredator defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Skojec
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Chandra Earl
- Bishop Museum, Bernice Pauahi, Honolulu, HI, United States of America
| | - Christian D. Couch
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Paul Masonick
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Akito Y. Kawahara
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
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3
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Skojec C, Godfrey RK, Kawahara AY. Long read genome assembly of Automeris io (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) an emerging model for the evolution of deimatic displays. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2024; 14:jkad292. [PMID: 38324397 PMCID: PMC10917498 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Automeris moths are a morphologically diverse group with 135 described species that have a geographic range that spans from the New World temperate zone to the Neotropics. Many Automeris have elaborate hindwing eyespots that are thought to deter or disrupt the attack of potential predators, allowing the moth time to escape. The Io moth (Automeris io), known for its striking eyespots, is a well-studied species within the genus and is an emerging model system to study the evolution of deimatism. Existing research on the eyespot pattern development will be augmented by genomic resources that allow experimental manipulation of this emerging model. Here, we present a high-quality, PacBio HiFi genome assembly for Io moth to aid existing research on the molecular development of eyespots and future research on other deimatic traits. This 490 Mb assembly is highly contiguous (N50 = 15.78 mbs) and complete (benchmarking universal single-copy orthologs = 98.4%). Additionally, we were able to recover orthologs of genes previously identified as being involved in wing pattern formation and movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Skojec
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural
History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 220 Bartram
Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - R Keating Godfrey
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural
History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611, USA
| | - Akito Y Kawahara
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural
History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 220 Bartram
Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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4
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Whitcher C, Beaver L, Lemmon EM. The effect of biofluorescence on predation upon Cope's gray treefrog: A clay model experiment. Behav Processes 2024; 215:104996. [PMID: 38278426 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2024.104996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Biofluorescence, the ability to absorb light and reemit it at a longer wavelength, is present in many taxa but has been examined only recently in amphibians. Over half of the studies documenting biofluorescence in the last century suggest this fluorescent signal may affect predation; however, to date, only one other experimental study has tested this hypothesis. To address this question, we experimentally tested the effect of biofluorescence on predation through the study of the Cope's Gray Treefrog, Hyla chrysoscelis. First, we quantified the spectral characteristics of a novel biofluorescence pattern in H. chrysoscelis. In both sexes of this species, the fluorescent signal is concentrated in an area that contains a proposed aposematic pattern to warn predators of the frog's toxic secretions. We hypothesized that the biofluorescent trait may increase the conspicuousness of this pattern and enable the frogs to deter predators more effectively. Second, we tested this prediction by conducting a clay model field experiment to assess differences in predation attempts on fluorescent versus non-fluorescent H. chrysoscelis models by various predator types. We found no effect of biofluorescence on the overall presence, type, or location of predation, suggesting that biofluorescence alone does not act as an antipredator signal of H. chrysoscelis. This study represents one of the first attempts to experimentally test the effect of biofluorescence on predation in any organism and the first to do so in amphibians. Further work is needed to explore the role of this trait in predation in other systems and to investigate alternative functions for the biofluorescent signal in H. chrysoscelis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Whitcher
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA.
| | - Lilyanne Beaver
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, 3209 Duke Univserity School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Emily Moriarty Lemmon
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
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5
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Nathalia X, Vinicius M, Danilo Brito R, Felipe G, Rodrigo W. The Influence of Substance Properties on Arthropod Chemical Defenses: A Meta-Analysis. J Chem Ecol 2024; 50:42-51. [PMID: 38133704 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-023-01457-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Among defenses against predation, chemical defenses are possibly the most studied. However, when addressing the effectiveness of those chemical defenses, previous studies did not include properties of the chemical substances themselves. Lipophilicity, for instance, may facilitate crossing membranes, and boiling point may define the duration of the substances in the air. Moreover, other variables may also be relevant: the predator taxon; the prey model chosen to conduct experiments; whether the prey is presented grouped or not in experiments; and whether the chemical defense is a mixture of many substances or only one. To understand how those factors influence chemical defenses' effectiveness, we conducted a multilevel meta-analysis with 43 studies (127 effect sizes), accounting for different types of dependence. We used Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) to select the best model. The model with the lowest AICc value included only the boiling point, which defines how quickly a chemical substance volatilizes. This model indicated that the most effective chemical defenses had lower boiling point values, i.e., higher volatility. Moreover, we did not find chemicals with very low boiling points, suggesting there might be an optimum range of volatility. Other models, including the intercept-only model, were also recovered among the best models, therefore further studies are needed to confirm the relationship between volatility and chemical defenses' effectiveness. Our results highlight the value of incorporating physicochemical properties in the ecological and evolutionary study of chemical defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximenes Nathalia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zoologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades, Laboratory of Sensory Ecology and Behavior of Arthropods, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Moraes Vinicius
- Laboratório de Taxonomia Ecologia e Interações de Aracnídeos, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | | | - Gawryszewski Felipe
- Departamento de Zoologia, Evolutionary Ecology Laboratory, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Willemart Rodrigo
- Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades, Laboratory of Sensory Ecology and Behavior of Arthropods, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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6
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Loeffler-Henry K, Sherratt TN. Selection for evasive mimicry imposed by an arthropod predator. Biol Lett 2024; 20:20230461. [PMID: 38166416 PMCID: PMC10762431 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2023.0461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2024] Open
Abstract
It has long been hypothesized that a species that is relatively easy to catch by predators may face selection to resemble a species that is harder to catch. Several experiments using avian predators have since supported this 'evasive mimicry' hypothesis. However, the sudden movement of artificial evasive prey in each of the above experiments may have startled the predators, generating an avoidance response unrelated to difficulty of capture. Additionally in the above experiments the catchability of prey was all or nothing, while in nature predators may occasionally catch evasive prey or fail to catch slower species, which might inhibit learning. Here, using mantids as predators, we conducted an experimental test of the evasive mimicry hypothesis that circumvents these limitations, using live painted calyptrate flies with modified evasive capabilities as prey. We found that mantids readily learned to avoid pursuing the more evasive prey types. Warning signals based on evasiveness and their associated mimicry may be widespread phenomena in nature. These findings not only further support its plausibility but demonstrate that even arthropod predators can select for it.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas N. Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6
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7
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Kikuchi DW, Allen WL, Arbuckle K, Aubier TG, Briolat ES, Burdfield-Steel ER, Cheney KL, Daňková K, Elias M, Hämäläinen L, Herberstein ME, Hossie TJ, Joron M, Kunte K, Leavell BC, Lindstedt C, Lorioux-Chevalier U, McClure M, McLellan CF, Medina I, Nawge V, Páez E, Pal A, Pekár S, Penacchio O, Raška J, Reader T, Rojas B, Rönkä KH, Rößler DC, Rowe C, Rowland HM, Roy A, Schaal KA, Sherratt TN, Skelhorn J, Smart HR, Stankowich T, Stefan AM, Summers K, Taylor CH, Thorogood R, Umbers K, Winters AE, Yeager J, Exnerová A. The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:975-991. [PMID: 37363877 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | | | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Thomas G Aubier
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, UMR 5174, CNRS/IRD, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Emily R Burdfield-Steel
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Klára Daňková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Liisa Hämäläinen
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas J Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mathieu Joron
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Brian C Leavell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ugo Lorioux-Chevalier
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Melanie McClure
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | | | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Viraj Nawge
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Erika Páez
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Arka Pal
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Olivier Penacchio
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
- Computer Vision Center, Computer Science Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tom Reader
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Katja H Rönkä
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Daniela C Rößler
- Zukunftskolleg, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Candy Rowe
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Arlety Roy
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Kaitlin A Schaal
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - John Skelhorn
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah R Smart
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ted Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California, USA
| | - Amanda M Stefan
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle Summers
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Rose Thorogood
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kate Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Science Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anne E Winters
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Justin Yeager
- Grupo de Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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8
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Exnerová A, Kang C, Rowland HM, Kikuchi DW. Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:961-966. [PMID: 37449469 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
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9
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Rubin JJ, Kawahara AY. A framework for understanding post-detection deception in predator-prey interactions. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15389. [PMID: 37377786 PMCID: PMC10292197 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Predators and prey exist in persistent conflict that often hinges on deception-the transmission of misleading or manipulative signals-as a means for survival. Deceptive traits are widespread across taxa and sensory systems, representing an evolutionarily successful and common strategy. Moreover, the highly conserved nature of the major sensory systems often extends these traits past single species predator-prey interactions toward a broader set of perceivers. As such, deceptive traits can provide a unique window into the capabilities, constraints and commonalities across divergent and phylogenetically-related perceivers. Researchers have studied deceptive traits for centuries, but a unified framework for categorizing different types of post-detection deception in predator-prey conflict still holds potential to inform future research. We suggest that deceptive traits can be distinguished by their effect on object formation processes. Perceptual objects are composed of physical attributes (what) and spatial (where) information. Deceptive traits that operate after object formation can therefore influence the perception and processing of either or both of these axes. We build upon previous work using a perceiver perspective approach to delineate deceptive traits by whether they closely match the sensory information of another object or create a discrepancy between perception and reality by exploiting the sensory shortcuts and perceptual biases of their perceiver. We then further divide this second category, sensory illusions, into traits that distort object characteristics along either the what or where axes, and those that create the perception of whole novel objects, integrating the what/where axes. Using predator-prey examples, we detail each step in this framework and propose future avenues for research. We suggest that this framework will help organize the many forms of deceptive traits and help generate predictions about selective forces that have driven animal form and behavior across evolutionary time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette J. Rubin
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Akito Y. Kawahara
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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10
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Robledo-Ospina LE, Morehouse N, Escobar F, Tapia-McClung H, Narendra A, Rao D. Visual antipredator effects of web flexing in an orb web spider, with special reference to web decorations. THE SCIENCE OF NATURE - NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN 2023; 110:23. [PMID: 37219696 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-023-01849-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Some visual antipredator strategies involve the rapid movement of highly contrasting body patterns to frighten or confuse the predator. Bright body colouration, however, can also be detected by potential predators and used as a cue. Among spiders, Argiope spp. are usually brightly coloured but they are not a common item in the diet of araneophagic wasps. When disturbed, Argiope executes a web-flexing behaviour in which they move rapidly and may be perceived as if they move backwards and towards an observer in front of the web. We studied the mechanisms underlying web-flexing behaviour as a defensive strategy. Using multispectral images and high-speed videos with deep-learning-based tracking techniques, we evaluated body colouration, body pattern, and spider kinematics from the perspective of a potential wasp predator. We show that the spider's abdomen is conspicuous, with a disruptive colouration pattern. We found that the body outline of spiders with web decorations was harder to detect when compared to spiders without decorations. The abdomen was also the body part that moved fastest, and its motion was composed mainly of translational (vertical) vectors in the potential predator's optical flow. In addition, with high contrast colouration, the spider's movement might be perceived as a sudden change in body size (looming effect) as perceived by the predator. These effects alongside the other visual cues may confuse potential wasp predators by breaking the spider body outline and affecting the wasp's flight manoeuvre, thereby deterring the wasp from executing the final attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E Robledo-Ospina
- Red de Ecoetología, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Xalapa, Veracruz, México
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Nathan Morehouse
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Federico Escobar
- Red de Ecoetología, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Horacio Tapia-McClung
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Inteligencia Artificial, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Ajay Narendra
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Dinesh Rao
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, México.
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11
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Barnett JB, Yeager J, McEwen BL, Kinley I, Anderson HM, Guevara J. Size-dependent colouration balances conspicuous aposematism and camouflage. J Evol Biol 2022. [PMID: 36514842 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Colour is an important component of many different defensive strategies, but signal efficacy and detectability will also depend on the size of the coloured structures, and how pattern size interacts with the background. Consequently, size-dependent changes in colouration are common among many different species as juveniles and adults frequently use colour for different purposes in different environmental contexts. A widespread strategy in many species is switching from crypsis to conspicuous aposematic signalling as increasing body size can reduce the efficacy of camouflage, while other antipredator defences may strengthen. Curiously, despite being chemically defended, the gold-striped frog (Lithodytes lineatus, Leptodactylidae) appears to do the opposite, with bright yellow stripes found in smaller individuals, whereas larger frogs exhibit dull brown stripes. Here, we investigated whether size-dependent differences in colour support distinct defensive strategies. We first used visual modelling of potential predators to assess how colour contrast varied among frogs of different sizes. We found that contrast peaked in mid-sized individuals while the largest individuals had the least contrasting patterns. We then used two detection experiments with human participants to evaluate how colour and body size affected overall detectability. These experiments revealed that larger body sizes were easier to detect, but that the colours of smaller frogs were more detectable than those of larger frogs. Taken together our data support the hypothesis that the primary defensive strategy changes from conspicuous aposematism to camouflage with increasing size, implying size-dependent differences in the efficacy of defensive colouration. We discuss our data in relation to theories of size-dependent aposematism and evaluate the evidence for and against a possible size-dependent mimicry complex with sympatric poison frogs (Dendrobatidae).
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Justin Yeager
- Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Direccion General de Investigacion, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Brendan L McEwen
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Isaac Kinley
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Hannah M Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Jennifer Guevara
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada.,Grupo de Investigación Ecosistemas Tropicales y Cambio Global, Facultad Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador
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12
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Riley JL, Haff TM, Ryeland J, Drinkwater E, Umbers KDL. The protective value of the colour and shape of the mountain katydid's antipredator defence. J Evol Biol 2022. [PMID: 35960499 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deimatic behaviour is performed by prey when attacked by predators as part of an antipredator strategy. The behaviour is part of a sequence that consists of several defences, for example they can be preceded by camouflage and followed by a hidden putatively aposematic signal that is only revealed when the deimatic behaviour is performed. When displaying their hidden signal, mountain katydids (Acripeza reticulata) hold their wings vertically, exposing striking red and black stripes with blue spots and oozing an alkaloid-rich chemical defence derived from its Senecio diet. Understanding differences and interactions between deimatism and aposematism has proven problematic, so in this study we isolated the putative aposematic signal of the mountain katydid's antipredator strategy to measure its survival value in the absence of their deimatic behaviour. We manipulated two aspects of the mountain katydid's signal, colour pattern and whole body shape during display. We deployed five kinds of clay models, one negative control and four katydid-like treatments, in 15 grids across part of the mountain katydid's distribution to test the hypothesis that their hidden signal is aposematic. If this hypothesis holds true, we expected that the models, which most closely resembled real katydids would be attacked the least. Instead, we found that models that most closely resembled real katydids were the most likely to be attacked. We suggest several ideas to explain these results, including that the deimatic phase of the katydid's display, the change from a camouflaged state to exposing its hidden signal, may have important protective value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Riley
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tonya M Haff
- Australian National Wildlife Collection, CSIRO, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Julia Ryeland
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eleanor Drinkwater
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Kate D L Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
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13
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Mourmourakis F, De Bona S, Umbers KDL. Increasing intensity of deimatic behaviour in response to repeated simulated attacks: a case study on the mountain katydid (Acripeza reticulata). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03226-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
How and when deimatic behaviours are performed can change during encounters between predators and prey. Some predators attack repeatedly, investigating and manipulating prey, and in response, an individual’s deimatic behaviour may intensify or may diminish in favour of escaping. The presence of a resource can further force a trade-off between displaying and escaping. Here, we examined the intensity of the katydid’s deimatic behaviour, a visual display, the propensity of their escape response under repeated simulated attacks, and how these responses change in the presence of foraging resources. We found that display intensity increased with repeated simulated attacks and that females displayed at a greater intensity than males. The presence of their preferred food plant had no significant effect on display intensity, but reduced escape probability in both sexes. Some katydids were predictable in their display intensity and at the population level we found that strong display intensity is moderately repeatable. Overall, our results suggest that 1) display intensity increases with repeated attacks and might indicate a cost in performing at maximum intensity upon first attack, 2) deploying a deimatic display while feeding can reduce the need to flee a rich foraging patch and 3) some individuals are consistent in their display intensities. Future experiments that aim to determine causal mechanisms such as limitations to perception of predators, sensitisation to stimuli and physiological constraints to display intensity will provide necessary insight into how deimatic displays function.
Significance statement
Though often regarded as success or failure, interactions between predators and prey during the attack phase of a predation event are complex, especially when predators make repeated investigative attacks in quick succession. Our study shows that in mountain katydids, intensity of deimatic behaviour increases with repeated attacks, perhaps indicating that prey sensitise or that maximal displays during initial attacks carry high costs such as conspicuousness. The intensity of the display does not change with the introduction of a valuable food resource, but the probability of fleeing decreased, suggesting that displaying may reduce the opportunity costs of leaving a patch. We also show that individuals vary in the repeatability of their display, suggesting that deimatic display may be highly adaptable, nuanced and targeted.
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