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Fletcher RJ, O'Brien A, Hall TF, Jones M, Potash AD, Kruger L, Simelane P, Roques K, Monadjem A, McCleery RA. Frightened of giants: fear responses to elephants approach that of predators. Biol Lett 2023; 19:20230202. [PMID: 37817576 PMCID: PMC10565413 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2023.0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals are faced with a variety of dangers or threats, which are increasing in frequency with ongoing environmental change. While our understanding of fearfulness of such dangers is growing in the context of predation and parasitism risk, the extent to which non-trophic, interspecific dangers elicit fear in animals remains less appreciated. We provide an experimental test for fear responses of savannah ungulates to a dominant and aggressive megaherbivore, the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), and contrast responses to an apex predator known to elicit fear in this system. Using an automated behavioural response system, we contrast vigilance and run responses of ungulates to elephant, leopard (Panthera pardus), and control (red-chested cuckoo Cuculus solitarius) vocalizations. Overall, we find that ungulates responded to elephant calls, both in terms of an increase in run and vigilance responses relative to controls. The magnitude of most behavioural responses (four of six considered) to elephant vocalizations were not significantly different than responses to leopards. These results suggest that megaherbivores can elicit strong non-trophic fear responses by ungulates and call to broaden frameworks on fear to consider dominant species, such as megaherbivores, as key modifiers of fear-induced interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Fletcher
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Amanda O'Brien
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Timothy F. Hall
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Maggie Jones
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Alex D. Potash
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | | | - Phumlile Simelane
- All Out Africa, Savannah Research Centre, Mbuluzi Game Reserve, Lubombo, Eswatini
| | - Kim Roques
- All Out Africa, Savannah Research Centre, Mbuluzi Game Reserve, Lubombo, Eswatini
| | - Ara Monadjem
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Eswatini, Kwaluseni, Eswatini
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Robert A. McCleery
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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Wigley BJ, Coetsee C, Kruger LM, Ratnam J, Sankaran M. Ants, fire, and bark traits affect how African savanna trees recover following damage. Biotropica 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J. Wigley
- National Centre for Biological Sciences Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Bangalore India
- School of Natural Resource Management Nelson Mandela University George South Africa
| | - Corli Coetsee
- School of Natural Resource Management Nelson Mandela University George South Africa
- Scientific Services Kruger National Park Skukuza South Africa
| | - Laurence M. Kruger
- Organisation for Tropical Studies Skukuza South Africa
- Biology Department University of Cape Town Rondebosch South Africa
| | - Jayashree Ratnam
- National Centre for Biological Sciences Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Bangalore India
| | - Mahesh Sankaran
- National Centre for Biological Sciences Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Bangalore India
- School of Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of Leeds Leeds UK
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Coggan NV, Hayward MW, Gibb H. A global database and "state of the field" review of research into ecosystem engineering by land animals. J Anim Ecol 2018; 87:974-994. [PMID: 29488217 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Ecosystem engineers have been widely studied for terrestrial systems, but global trends in research encompassing the range of taxa and functions have not previously been synthesised. We reviewed contemporary understanding of engineer fauna in terrestrial habitats and assessed the methods used to document patterns and processes, asking: (a) which species act as ecosystem engineers and with whom do they interact? (b) What are the impacts of ecosystem engineers in terrestrial habitats and how are they distributed? (c) What are the primary methods used to examine engineer effects and how have these developed over time? We considered the strengths, weaknesses and gaps in knowledge related to each of these questions and suggested a conceptual framework to delineate "significant impacts" of engineering interactions for all terrestrial animals. We collected peer-reviewed publications examining ecosystem engineer impacts and created a database of engineer species to assess experimental approaches and any additional covariates that influenced the magnitude of engineer impacts. One hundred and twenty-two species from 28 orders were identified as ecosystem engineers, performing five ecological functions. Burrowing mammals were the most researched group (27%). Half of all studies occurred in dry/arid habitats. Mensurative studies comparing sites with and without engineers (80%) were more common than manipulative studies (20%). These provided a broad framework for predicting engineer impacts upon abundance and species diversity. However, the roles of confounding factors, processes driving these patterns and the consequences of experimentally adjusting variables, such as engineer density, have been neglected. True spatial and temporal replication has also been limited, particularly for emerging studies of engineer reintroductions. Climate change and habitat modification will challenge the roles that engineers play in regulating ecosystems, and these will become important avenues for future research. We recommend future studies include simulation of engineer effects and experimental manipulation of engineer densities to determine the potential for ecological cascades through trophic and engineering pathways due to functional decline. We also recommend improving knowledge of long-term engineering effects and replication of engineer reintroductions across landscapes to better understand how large-scale ecological gradients alter the magnitude of engineering impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole V Coggan
- Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC., Australia
| | - Matthew W Hayward
- Australian Wildlife Conservancy, Subiaco East, W.A., Australia.,School of the Environment, Bangor University, Wales, UK
| | - Heloise Gibb
- Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC., Australia
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Davies AB, Gaylard A, Asner GP. Megafaunal effects on vegetation structure throughout a densely wooded African landscape. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 28:398-408. [PMID: 29178395 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Megafauna strongly affect vegetation structure and composition, often leading to management concern. However, the extent of their influence across large scales and varying ecosystems remains largely unknown. Using high resolution airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), we investigated landscape-scale changes in vegetation height and three-dimensional (3D) structure across landscapes of varying elephant densities and presence over time, and in response to surface water distribution and terrain variability in the heavily managed thicket biome of the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Elephants caused up to a fourfold reduction in vegetation height and altered the vertical profile, but increased vegetation height variability. Vegetation height also increased with elevation and distance from water, particularly in areas that elephants had long occupied at high densities. Slope had opposing effects on vegetation height, with height increasing with slope in areas long exposed to elephants, but decreasing where elephants had only recently been granted access. Our results suggest that elephants are the primary agents of vegetation change in this ecosystem, but that the strength of their effects varies across the landscape, enabling management to use water and terrain as mitigation tools. We further highlight the necessity of landscape-level experimental studies on megafaunal effects to untangle mechanisms and establish causality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B Davies
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | - Angela Gaylard
- Scientific Services, South African National Parks, Knysna, South Africa
| | - Gregory P Asner
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
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Fullman TJ, Kiker GA, Gaylard A, Southworth J, Waylen P, Kerley GI. Elephants respond to resource trade-offs in an aseasonal system through daily and annual variability in resource selection. KOEDOE: AFRICAN PROTECTED AREA CONSERVATION AND SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.4102/koedoe.v59i1.1326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Animals and humans regularly make trade-offs between competing objectives. In Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), elephants (Loxodonta africana) trade off selection of resources, while managers balance tourist desires with conservation of elephants and rare plants. Elephant resource selection has been examined in seasonal savannas, but is understudied in aseasonal systems like AENP. Understanding elephant selection may suggest ways to minimise management trade-offs. We evaluated how elephants select vegetation productivity, distance to water, slope and terrain ruggedness across time in AENP and used this information to suggest management strategies that balance the needs of tourists and biodiversity. Resource selection functions with time-interacted covariates were developed for female elephants, using three data sets of daily movement to capture circadian and annual patterns of resource use. Results were predicted in areas of AENP currently unavailable to elephants to explore potential effects of future elephant access. Elephants displayed dynamic resource selection at daily and annual scales to meet competing requirements for resources. In summer, selection patterns generally conformed to those seen in savannas, but these relationships became weaker or reversed in winter. At daily scales, resource selection in the morning differed from that of midday and afternoon, likely reflecting trade-offs between acquiring sufficient forage and water. Dynamic selection strategies exist even in an aseasonal system, with both daily and annual patterns. This reinforces the importance of considering changing resource availability and trade-offs in studies of animal selection.Conservation implications: Guiding tourism based on knowledge of elephant habitat selection may improve viewing success without requiring increased elephant numbers. If AENP managers expand elephant habitat to reduce density, our model predicts where elephant use may concentrate and where botanical reserves may be needed to protect rare plants from elephant impacts.
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Davies AB, Tambling CJ, Kerley GIH, Asner GP. Effects of Vegetation Structure on the Location of Lion Kill Sites in African Thicket. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149098. [PMID: 26910832 PMCID: PMC4766088 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey relationships are integral to ecosystem stability and functioning. These relationships are, however, difficult to maintain in protected areas where large predators are increasingly being reintroduced and confined. Where predators make kills has a profound influence on their role in ecosystems, but the relative importance of environmental variables in determining kill sites, and how these might vary across ecosystems is poorly known. We investigated kill sites for lions in South Africa’s thicket biome, testing the importance of vegetation structure for kill site locations compared to other environmental variables. Kill sites were located over four years using GPS telemetry and compared to non-kill sites that had been occupied by lions, as well as to random sites within lion ranges. Measurements of 3D vegetation structure obtained from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) were used to calculate the visible area (viewshed) around each site and, along with wind and moonlight data, used to compare kill sites between lion sexes, prey species and prey sexes. Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites (sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be kill sites compared to open areas), followed by wind speed and, less so, moonlight. Kill sites for different prey species varied with vegetation structure, and male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher compared to female prey of the same species. Our results demonstrate that vegetation structure is an important component of predator-prey interactions, with varying effects across ecosystems. Such differences require consideration in terms of the ecological roles performed by predators, and in predator and prey conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B. Davies
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, California, 94305, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Craig J. Tambling
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, 6031, South Africa
| | - Graham I. H. Kerley
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, 6031, South Africa
| | - Gregory P. Asner
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, California, 94305, United States of America
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Ramos A, Petit O, Longour P, Pasquaretta C, Sueur C. Space Use and Movement Patterns in a Semi-Free-Ranging Herd of European Bison (Bison bonasus). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147404. [PMID: 26841107 PMCID: PMC4740407 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The successful reintroduction and restocking of the European Bison demands a reliable knowledge of the biology of this species. Yet little is known to date about the European bison, and empirical data remains insufficient to set up a reliable plan ensuring the reintroduction, maintenance and survival of populations in habitats that have been largely modified by human activity. Studies of the ecology, social behaviour and management of bison are therefore crucial to the conservation of this species and its cohabitation with humans. To meet these challenges, we focused on movement patterns and space use in a semi-free-ranging herd of European bison living in the Réserve Biologique des Monts-d’Azur (France). Bison spend over 80% of their time foraging and resting; foraging mainly occurs around the artificial feeding sites (i.e., hay racks) or in meadows. The time of day and the presence of snow have no influence on the time budget allocated to each activity. Animals, however, spend more time at the food racks in winter. Bison also spend most of their time in small groups of individuals, confirming the occurrence of both fission-fusion dynamics and sexual segregation in this species. Bison seem to follow a Lévy walk pattern of movement, which is probably related to the geographical distribution and size of food patches in the reserve. The conclusions of this study provide a better understanding of the sociality, life habits and habitat use of bison, and also describe how the provision of hay affects all these behaviours. These results could be useful in the development of tools to select the most suitable habitats for the reintroduction, management and conservation of bison populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Ramos
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Strasbourg, France
| | - Odile Petit
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Strasbourg, France
| | - Patrice Longour
- Réserve Biologique des Monts-d’Azur, Domaine du Haut-Thorenc, Thorenc, France
| | - Cristian Pasquaretta
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Strasbourg, France
| | - Cédric Sueur
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Strasbourg, France
- * E-mail:
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Ripple WJ, Newsome TM, Wolf C, Dirzo R, Everatt KT, Galetti M, Hayward MW, Kerley GIH, Levi T, Lindsey PA, Macdonald DW, Malhi Y, Painter LE, Sandom CJ, Terborgh J, Van Valkenburgh B. Collapse of the world's largest herbivores. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2015; 1:e1400103. [PMID: 26601172 PMCID: PMC4640652 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1400103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 438] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Large wild herbivores are crucial to ecosystems and human societies. We highlight the 74 largest terrestrial herbivore species on Earth (body mass ≥100 kg), the threats they face, their important and often overlooked ecosystem effects, and the conservation efforts needed to save them and their predators from extinction. Large herbivores are generally facing dramatic population declines and range contractions, such that ~60% are threatened with extinction. Nearly all threatened species are in developing countries, where major threats include hunting, land-use change, and resource depression by livestock. Loss of large herbivores can have cascading effects on other species including large carnivores, scavengers, mesoherbivores, small mammals, and ecological processes involving vegetation, hydrology, nutrient cycling, and fire regimes. The rate of large herbivore decline suggests that ever-larger swaths of the world will soon lack many of the vital ecological services these animals provide, resulting in enormous ecological and social costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J. Ripple
- Trophic Cascades Program, Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Corresponding author. E-mail:
| | - Thomas M. Newsome
- Trophic Cascades Program, Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Desert Ecology Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Christopher Wolf
- Trophic Cascades Program, Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Rodolfo Dirzo
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kristoffer T. Everatt
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
| | - Mauro Galetti
- Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), C.P. 199, Rio Claro, São Paulo 13506-900, Brazil
| | - Matt W. Hayward
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
- College of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Thoday Building, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL572UW, UK
| | - Graham I. H. Kerley
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
| | - Taal Levi
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Peter A. Lindsey
- Lion Program, Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10018, USA
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng 0001, South Africa
| | - David W. Macdonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, UK
| | - Yadvinder Malhi
- Environmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Luke E. Painter
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Christopher J. Sandom
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, UK
| | - John Terborgh
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, P. O. Box 90381, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Blaire Van Valkenburgh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095–7239, USA
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Tambling CJ, Minnie L, Adendorff J, Kerley GI. Elephants facilitate impact of large predators on small ungulate prey species. Basic Appl Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2013.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Freeman EW, Meyer JM, Putman SB, Schulte BA, Brown JL. Ovarian cycle activity varies with respect to age and social status in free-ranging elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 1:cot025. [PMID: 27293609 PMCID: PMC4806622 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cot025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Free-ranging African elephants live in a fission-fusion society, at the centre of which is the matriarch. Matriarchs are generally older females that guide their families to resources and co-ordinate group defense. While much is known about elephant society, knowledge is generally lacking about how age affects the physiology of wild elephants. Investigation of the ovarian activity of free-ranging elephants could provide insight into the reproductive ageing process, with implications for population management. Faecal samples were collected from 46 individuals ranging in age from 14 to 60 years for a 2-year period, and progestagen metabolite analyses were used to examine relationships between social status, age, season, and ovarian activity in female elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Social status was the strongest predictor of faecal progestagen metabolite concentrations in non-pregnant elephants, with grand matriarchs (n = 6) having the lowest values compared with matriarchs (n = 21) and non-matriarch females (n = 19). Likewise, social status and age were the strongest predictors of faecal progestagen metabolite concentrations in pregnant elephants (n = 27). The number of years since a non-pregnant female gave birth to her last calf (post-partum duration) was longer for older females with a higher social status, as well as during the dry season. Our results indicate that social standing and age of elephants are related to reproductive function, and that older females exhibit reductions in ovarian capacity. These results expand our understanding of reproduction and fertility throughout an elephant's lifespan, and the factors that impact gonadal function in free-ranging females. Given that possible over-abundance of elephants in areas such as Addo Elephant National Park is fuelling the debate over how best to manage these populations, knowledge about the reproductive potential of high-ranking females can provide managers with biological data to identify the best candidates for controlling growth through translocation or contraception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth W. Freeman
- New Century College, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Jordana M. Meyer
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Sarah B. Putman
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Bruce A. Schulte
- Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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