β2-AR activation promotes cleavage and nuclear translocation of Her2 and metastatic potential of cancer cells

Norepinephrine/β2-Adrenergic Receptor Pathway Promotes the Cell Proliferation and Nerve Growth Factor Production in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) accounts for 90% of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). IDC is mainly derived from the breast ductal epithelium which is innervated by the 4th to 6th thoracic sympathetic nerves. However, little is known about the contribution of the interactions between sympathetic nerves and breast cancer cells to the malignant progression of TNBC.

METHODS

The expression levels of the β₂-adrenergic receptor (β₂-AR, encoded by ADRB2 gene), nerve growth factor (NGF), and tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA) were determined using immunohistochemistry (IHC). NGF expression levels in the serum were compared by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Cell proliferation was assessed using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. The β₂-AR, NGF, p-ERK, and p-CERB expression levels were determined using western blotting. TNBC cells and neuronal cells of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in 2-day-old Sprague Dawley rats were co-cultured. Using norepinephrine (NE), NGF, and β₂-AR, NGF/TrkA blocker pretreatments, the axon growth of each group of DRG neuron cells was detected by immunofluorescence analysis.

RESULTS

The sympathetic adrenergic neurotransmitter NE activated the ERK signaling pathway in TNBC cells. NE/β₂-AR signaling promotes NGF secretion. NGF further facilitates the malignant progression of TNBC by increasing sympathetic neurogenesis. In the co-culture assay, the sympathetic adrenergic NE/β₂-AR signal pathway also enhanced NGF secretion. NGF binds TrkA in DRG neurons and promotes axonal growth.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that NE/β₂-AR pathway promotes cell proliferation and NGF production in triple-negative breast cancer.

Resistance to Trastuzumab

Simple Summary

Trastuzumab is a humanized antibody that has significantly improved the management and treatment outcomes of patients with cancers that overexpress HER2. Many research groups, both in academia and industry, have contributed towards understanding the various mechanisms engaged by trastuzumab to mediate its anti-tumor effects. Nevertheless, data from several clinical studies have indicated that a significant proportion of patients exhibit primary or acquired resistance to trastuzumab therapy. In this article, we discuss underlying mechanisms that contribute towards to resistance. Furthermore, we discuss the potential strategies to overcome some of the mechanisms of resistance to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of trastuzumab and other therapies based on it.

Abstract

One of the most impactful biologics for the treatment of breast cancer is the humanized monoclonal antibody, trastuzumab, which specifically recognizes the HER2/neu (HER2) protein encoded by the ERBB2 gene. Useful for both advanced and early breast cancers, trastuzumab has multiple mechanisms of action. Classical mechanisms attributed to trastuzumab action include cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Recent studies have identified the role of the adaptive immune system in the clinical actions of trastuzumab. Despite the multiple mechanisms of action, many patients demonstrate resistance, primary or adaptive. Newly identified molecular and cellular mechanisms of trastuzumab resistance include induction of immune suppression, vascular mimicry, generation of breast cancer stem cells, deregulation of long non-coding RNAs, and metabolic escape. These newly identified mechanisms of resistance are discussed in detail in this review, particularly considering how they may lead to the development of well-rationalized, patient-tailored combinations that improve patient survival.

Effect of chronic stress on tumorigenesis and development

Chronic stress activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to aggravates tumorigenesis and development. Although the importance of SNS and HPA in maintaining homeostasis has already attracted much attention, there is still a lot remained unknown about the molecular mechanisms by which chronic stress influence the occurrence and development of tumor. While some researches have already concluded the mechanisms underlying the effect of chronic stress on tumor, complicated processes of tumor progression resulted in effects of chronic stress on various stages of tumor remains elusive. In this reviews we concluded recent research progresses of chronic stress and its effects on premalignancy, tumorigenesis and tumor development, we comprehensively summarized the molecular mechanisms in between. And we highlight the available treatments and potential therapies for stressed patients with tumor.

β2-adrenergic receptor drives the metastasis and invasion of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma through activating Cdc42 signaling pathway

Recent investigations indicate that β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) signaling may facilitate the progression of various tumors, whose underlying mechanisms remain largely elusive. In the present study, we showed that β2-AR recruited Cdc42 in response to isoproterenol (ISO, a β-AR selective agonist) exposure in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells. The association of β2-AR and Cdc42 promoted the activation of Cdc42, as revealed by increased levels of Cdc42-GTP, and co-incubation with β2-AR antagonist abrogated ISO-induced activation of Cdc42. β2-AR-mediated Cdc42 activation further led to the phosphorylation of downstream PAK1, LIMK1 and Merlin. Furthermore, we showed that the activation of β2-AR/Cdc42 signaling facilitated the migration and invasion of PDAC cells. In addition, β2-AR and Cdc42 were overexpressed in PDAC specimens, compared with adjacent non-tumor tissues. High expression of β2-AR and Cdc42 were correlated with lymph node metastasis and TNM stage in PDAC patients. Finally, we showed that overexpression of β2-AR and Cdc42 were indicative of unfavorable prognosis in PDAC patients. Taken together, our findings suggested that β2-AR might facilitate Cdc42 signaling to drive the migration and invasion of PDAC cells, consequently resulting in the metastasis and dismal prognosis of PDAC. These studies highlight targeting β2-AR/Cdc42 signaling as a therapeutic strategy against PDAC.

PlexinA1 activation induced by β2-AR promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition through JAK-STAT3 signaling in human gastric cancer cells

With the medical model shifting from a single biomedical model to a biopsychological-social model, the impact of psychosocial factors on cancer patients has attracted attention. Studies have shown that chronic stress caused by long-term psychological stress, such as anxiety and depression, can promote the malignant progression of tumors by acting on β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR). β2-AR can promote tumor migration by activating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). However, the underlying mechanisms in the regulation of EMT by β2-AR are still unclear. In this study, we established a chronic stress model by treating MGC-803 and SGC-7901 human gastric cancer cells with isoproterenol (ISO), a β2-AR agonist. EMT in the two gastric cancer cell lines was enhanced after ISO treatment. Thereafter, we found that the interaction between β2-AR and PlexinA1 was involved in the process by which chronic stress affects EMT in both MGC-803 and SGC-7901 cells. Moreover, the activation of β2-AR by ISO increased the expression of PlexinA1, activated JAK-STAT3 signaling and further promoted EMT in human gastric cancer cells. Importantly, the knockdown of PlexinA1 by small hairpin RNAs inhibited JAK-STAT3 signaling and abolished the EMT induced by β2-AR. In conclusion, PlexinA1 was an important downstream target of β2-AR, through which β2-AR promoted EMT in human gastric cancer cells by activating JAK-STAT3 signaling.

circ3323 Motivates Host Gene to Promote the Aggressiveness of Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer (BCa) is the most common cancer in the urinary system with high recurrence rate and poor prognosis. Circular RNA (circRNA) is a novel subclass of noncoding-RNA which participate in progression of BCa. Here, we identified a novel circRNA-circ3323 and aimed to investigate the role of circ3323 in progression of BCa. Public data of RNA sequencing was used to identify significant circRNA related to BCa. The role of circRNAs in progression of BCa was assessed in cytotoxicity assay, transwell assay and flow cytometry. Biotin-coupled RNA pull-down and fluorescence in situ hybridization were performed to evaluate the interaction between circRNAs and miRNAs. The expression of circ3323 was higher in BCa tissues and cells than in normal samples. Experiments in vitro showed that the knockdown of circ3323 inhibited cell proliferation and impeded the metastasis of BCa cells. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that circ3323 acts as a sponge for miR-186-5p and promotes host gene APP's expression. Clinically, circ3323 predicts worse overall survival of BCa patients, indicating its prognostic value. Our study identified that circ3323 modulates metastasis of BCa through miR-186-5p/APP axis and may serve as a promising prognostic biomarker for BCa, which provides novel insights into treatment of BCa.

ADRB2 is a potential protective gene in breast cancer by regulating tumor immune microenvironment

Background

Breast cancer (BRCA) is the leading cause of cancer death among females. Studies suggested that β-adrenoceptors involved in tumor progression by regulating immune system. However, how ADRB2 affects the immune infiltration in BRCA is still being unraveled.

Methods

Expressions of ADRB2 in multiple tissues, cancers and blood cells were analyzed by using the Human Protein Atlas and UALCAN database. Expression differentiation of ADRB2 in tumor microenvironment (TME) of BRCA was detected in TISCH database. Correlations between ADRB2 and immune cell infiltration were analyzed by TIMER 2.0, and co-expression genes of ADRB2 were obtained from the cBioPortal website. Functional enrichment analyses and protein-protein interactions were constructed as well. Finally, the potential mechanisms of ADRB2 and candidate drugs targeting BRCA were discussed by using the Metascape, STITCH and Cmap tools.

Results

ADRB2 was significantly down-regulated in BRCA, and lower ADRB2 expression often resulted in worse prognosis in BRCA patients. ADRB2 was mainly expressed in breast tissue and blood. Among blood cell subtypes and TME of BRCA, ADRB2 was specifically expressed in T cell subtypes. Also, ADRB2 expression level was positively correlated with the infiltration levels of immune cells such as CD4+ T cell, CD8+ T cell, Tγδ and myeloid DC while negatively correlated with Treg, Tfh and myeloid-derived suppressor cell. Furthermore, functional enrichment analyses revealed that most enriched pathways were immune-related, especially in T cell-related pathways. Also, transcription factors (TFs) analyses showed that most downstream TFs regulated by ADRB2 were immune-related, and most candidate drugs had promising anti-tumor effects.

Conclusions

In conclusion, ADRB2 was a potential protective gene in BRCA, and it might play a vital role in regulating immune responses. The expression level of ADRB2 was positively correlated with immune cells infiltration in BRCA, especially for T cells. Therefore, ADRB2 would be a target for boosting immunotherapy effects in BRCA.

Chronic Stress Effects on Tumor: Pathway and Mechanism

Chronic stress is an emotional experience that occurs when people encounter something they cannot adapt to. Repeated chronic stress increases the risk of a variety of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, depression, endocrine disease, inflammation and cancer. A growing body of research has shown that there is a link between chronic stress and tumor occurrence in both animal studies and clinical studies. Chronic stress activates the neuroendocrine system (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) and sympathetic nervous system. Stress hormones promote the occurrence and development of tumors through various mechanisms. In addition, chronic stress also affects the immune function of the body, leading to the decline of immune monitoring ability and promote the occurrence of tumors. The mechanisms of chronic stress leading to tumor include inflammation, autophagy and epigenetics. These factors increase the proliferation and invasion capacity of tumor cells and alter the tumor microenvironment. Antagonists targeting adrenergic receptors have played a beneficial role in improving antitumor activity, as well as chemotherapy resistance and radiation resistance. Here, we review how these mechanisms contribute to tumor initiation and progression, and discuss whether these molecular mechanisms might be an ideal target to treat tumor.

MicroRNA and cyclooxygenase-2 in breast cancer

Cancer remains a major public health problem worldwide and the latest statistics show that breast cancer (BC) is among the most frequent in women. MicroRNAs (miRNAs; miRs) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) are new diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for monitoring BC. COX-2 is a prominent tumor-associated inflammatory factor highly expressed in human tumor cells, including BC. Expression of COX-2 contributes to tumor growth, metastasis and recurrence. MiRs are a group of short (~22 nucleotides), noncoding regulatory RNAs that downregulate gene expression post-transcriptionally and play vital roles in regulating cancer development and progression. Interestingly, there are a group of miRNAs differentially expressed in breast tumor tissue. Understanding the pathway linking miRNAs to COX-2 can provide novel insight for suppressing COX-2 expression via gene silencing thereby leading to the development of selective miRNA inhibitors. Further research can also reveal key intermediate players and their potential as therapeutic targets. Given the association between different miRNAs and COX-2 expression in BC, this review presents a comprehensive overview of the current literature concerning how miRNAs and COX-2 signaling interact in BC progression.

β2-AR activation promotes cleavage and nuclear translocation of Her2 and metastatic potential of cancer cells

Prolonged hypersecretion of catecholamine induced by chronic stress may correlate with malignant progression of cancer. β2‐adrenergic receptor (β2‐AR) overexpressed in certain cancer cells may translate the signals from neuroendocrine system to malignant signals by interacting with oncoproteins, such as Her2. In the present study, we demonstrate that catecholamine stimulation activates the expression and proteolytic activity of ADAM10 by modulating the expression of miR‐199a‐5p and SIRT1 and also confirm that catecholamine induction triggers the activities of γ‐secretase, leading to shedding of Her2 extracellular domain (ECD) by ADAM10 and subsequent intramembranous cleavage of Her2 intracellular domain (ICD) by presenilin‐dependent γ‐secretase, nuclear translocation of Her2 ICD, and enhanced transcription of tumor metastasis‐associated gene COX‐2. Chronic stimulation of catecholamine strongly promotes the invasive activities of cancer cells in vitro and spontaneous tumor lung metastasis in mice. Furthermore, nuclear localization of Her2 was significantly correlated with overexpression of β2‐AR in human breast cancer tissues, indicating that catecholamine‐induced β2‐AR activation plays decisive roles in tumor metastasis. Our data also reveal that an unknown mechanism by which the regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) initiated by β2‐AR‐mediated signaling controls a novel Her2‐mediated signaling transduction.