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Milosavljevic B, Cook CJ, Fadera T, Ghillia G, Howard SJ, Makaula H, Mbye E, McCann S, Merkley R, Mshudulu M, Saidykhan M, Touray E, Tshetu N, Elwell C, Moore SE, Scerif G, Draper CE, Lloyd-Fox S. Executive functioning skills and their environmental predictors among pre-school aged children in South Africa and The Gambia. Dev Sci 2024; 27:e13407. [PMID: 37128134 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) in early childhood are predictors of later developmental outcomes and school readiness. Much of the research on EFs and their psychosocial correlates has been conducted in high-income, minority world countries, which represent a small and biased portion of children globally. The aim of this study is to examine EFs among children aged 3-5 years in two African countries, South Africa (SA) and The Gambia (GM), and to explore shared and distinct predictors of EFs in these settings. The SA sample (N = 243, 51.9% female) was recruited from low-income communities within the Cape Town Metropolitan area. In GM, participants (N = 171, 49.7% female) were recruited from the rural West Kiang region. EFs, working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC) and cognitive flexibility (CF), were measured using tablet-based tasks. Associations between EF task performance and indicators of socioeconomic status (household assets, caregiver education) and family enrichment factors (enrichment activities, diversity of caregivers) were assessed. Participants in SA scored higher on all EF tasks, but children in both sites predominantly scored within the expected range for their age. There were no associations between EFs and household or familial variables in SA, except for a trend-level association between caregiver education and CF. Patterns were similar in GM, where there was a trend-level association between WM and enrichment activities but no other relationships. We challenge the postulation that children in low-income settings have poorer EFs, simply due to lower socioeconomic status, but highlight the need to identify predictors of EFs in diverse, global settings. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Assessed Executive Functioning (EF) skills and their psychosocial predictors among pre-school aged children (aged 3-5 years) in two African settings (The Gambia and South Africa). On average, children within each setting performed within the expected range for their age, although children in South Africa had higher scores across tasks. There was little evidence of any association between socioeconomic variables and EFs in either site. Enrichment activities were marginally associated with better working memory in The Gambia, and caregiver education with cognitive flexibility in South Africa, both associations were trend-level significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bosiljka Milosavljevic
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Caylee J Cook
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Tijan Fadera
- Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keneba, The Gambia
| | - Giulia Ghillia
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
- Department of Women and Children's Health, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Steven J Howard
- Early Start and School of Education, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Hleliwe Makaula
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Ebrima Mbye
- Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keneba, The Gambia
| | - Samantha McCann
- Department of Women and Children's Health, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Merkley
- Department of Cognitive Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Mbulelo Mshudulu
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Mariama Saidykhan
- Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keneba, The Gambia
| | - Ebou Touray
- Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keneba, The Gambia
| | - Nosibusiso Tshetu
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Clare Elwell
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sophie E Moore
- Department of Women and Children's Health, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Gaia Scerif
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Catherine E Draper
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Sarah Lloyd-Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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Domic-Siede M, Ortiz R, Ávalos M, Salazar N, Burgos J, Rosales C, Ramos-Henderson M, Véliz-García O, Calderón C. Executive functions and their relationship with age: Insights from a novel neuropsychological Assessment Battery in Children-a pilot study. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2024:1-29. [PMID: 39089403 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2024.2381199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to manage and coordinate their thoughts and actions toward achieving specific goals. EFs include planning, organizing, initiating, and monitoring actions, and have been found to improve with age due to the maturation of the brain, especially during childhood. Therefore, our correlational study sought to determine the relationship between the performance in executive functions and age in 79 children (36 girls, 45.6%) throughout development, between the ages of 6 and 12 (mean = 9.25; SD = 2.05), using a battery designed in Chile: BEFE (Batería de Evaluación de las Funciones Ejecutivas: Executive Function Assessment Battery) based on traditional neuropsychological tests to evaluate Working Memory, Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility, and Planning skills. Our results showed various correlations between the variables age and performance in various behavioral parameters, demonstrating an increase in the number of correct responses (positive correlation) and/or a decrease in errors (negative correlation) with age (6-12) in the subtests that correspond to dimensions of Cognitive Flexibility (Semantic and Phonological Fluency, Card Sorting Game, and Tracing Tasks), Inhibitory Control (ENA-F and Sentence Completion), Working Memory (Audio-verbal WM Forward and Ordering, and Visuospatial WM Forward and Backward), and Planning (La Portada de Antofagasta and FISA Maps). These results are consistent with previous empirical evidence and support the notion of a developmental relationship between EF performance and age. Additionally, this study contributes to understanding EF development in culturally specific contexts, highlighting the importance of contextually relevant assessment tools in evaluating cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Domic-Siede
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Romina Ortiz
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - María Ávalos
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Nancy Salazar
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Jennifer Burgos
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Constanza Rosales
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Miguel Ramos-Henderson
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
- Centro de Investigación e Innovación en Gerontología Aplicada CIGAP, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tomás, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Oscar Véliz-García
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Carlos Calderón
- Laboratorio de Neurociencia Cognitiva, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
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Cook CJ, Howard SJ, Makaula H, Merkley R, Mshudulu M, Tshetu N, Scerif G, Draper CE. Risk and Protective Factors for Executive Function in Vulnerable South African Preschool-Age Children. J Cogn 2024; 7:58. [PMID: 39035072 PMCID: PMC11259110 DOI: 10.5334/joc.377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Executive function (EF) theory and research continues to under-represent the contexts in which the majority of the world's children reside, despite their potential to support, refute, or refine our current understandings. The current study sought to contribute to our understanding of EF in low-income settings in South Africa by investigating longitudinal associations of context-specific risk and protective factors for EF development in three- to five-year-old children who had limited access to ECCE services before the age of five. Child-caregiver dyads (N = 171) participated in two rounds of data collection (approximately seven months apart) during which child EF was assessed using the Early Years Toolbox; context-specific risk and protective factors were assessed through a caregiver questionnaire. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that after controlling for age, attending ECCE services at time 2 (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), and diversity of caregivers at time 1 (β = 0.14, p = 0.041) were the only factors positively associated with EF at time 2. Other factors commonly associated with EF such as caregiver education, and household income were not significant, while resources in the home were significantly associated with EF (β = -0.18, p = 0.007) but in the opposite direction to what was expected. These results add to accumulating evidence that predictors of EF established in Minority World contexts may not be consistent across contexts, emphasising the need to broaden the EF evidence base. For instance, future studies could incorporate qualitative and ethnographic methods to better capture the cultural and contextual nuances relating to EF, to better inform our statistical and theoretical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caylee J Cook
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Steven J Howard
- Early Start and School of Education, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Hleliwe Makaula
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Rebecca Merkley
- Department of Cognitive Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Mbulelo Mshudulu
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nosibusiso Tshetu
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Gaia Scerif
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine E Draper
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Piper JD, Mazhanga C, Mapako G, Mapurisa I, Mashedze T, Munyama E, Mwapaura M, Chidhanguro D, Gerema G, Tavengwa NV, Ntozini R, Langhaug LF, Smuk M, Rochat T, Kaufman A, Kaufman N, Gladstone M, Allen E, Prendergast AJ. Piloting the adaptation of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-2 nd edition (KABC-II) to assess school-age neurodevelopment in rural Zimbabwe. Wellcome Open Res 2024; 7:274. [PMID: 38910935 PMCID: PMC11190652 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17902.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Neurodevelopment assessment tools for low-resource settings are urgently needed. However, most available tools were developed in high-income settings and may lack cross-cultural validity. Methods We piloted and adapted two subtests within the planning domain of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (KABC-II) for use in rural Zimbabwean children aged 7years. After initial assessments of face validity, we created 4 substitutions for the story completion subtest and 7 additions for the pattern reasoning subtest through a co-design process with fieldworkers and child development experts. To assess how successful the changes were, T-tests adjusting for unequal variances were used to compare scores between the original and adapted versions of the same subtest. ANOVA and pairwise analysis was performed to compare the performance of KABC-II subtests across domains. Intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated to explore the variability between domains. Results Initial test scores on the planning domain were significantly lower than the other three domains of learning, sequential memory and simultaneous reasoning (P<0.001) in 50 children (mean age 7.6(SD 0.2) years). Modified subtests were administered to another 20 children (mean age 7.6(SD 0.2) years), who showed story completion scores that were 0.7 marks higher (95% CI 0.0, 1.4; P=0.05) and pattern reasoning scores 1.8 marks higher (95% CI 0.5, 3.2; P=0.01). Overall, the planning domain mean score increased from 8.1 (SD 2.9) to 10.6 (SD 3.4). The intra class correlation coefficient between all four KABC-II domains was initially 0.43 (95% CI 0.13, 0.64) and after modification was 0.69 (95% CI 0.37, 0.87), suggesting an increase in the construct validity. Conclusions The KABC-II planning domain was successfully adapted to improve cross-cultural validity. Construct validity was enhanced, based on increased inter-correlations among scales. The process of co-design to modify tests for new settings may be beneficial for other commonly used neurodevelopmental tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Piper
- Department of Genomics and Child Health, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4AT, UK
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Clever Mazhanga
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Gloria Mapako
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Idah Mapurisa
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Tsitsi Mashedze
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Eunice Munyama
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Marian Mwapaura
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Dzivaidzo Chidhanguro
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Grace Gerema
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Naume V. Tavengwa
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Robert Ntozini
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Lisa F. Langhaug
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Mabelreign, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Melanie Smuk
- Department of Genomics and Child Health, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4AT, UK
| | - Tamsen Rochat
- Department of Psychology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2000, South Africa
| | - Alan Kaufman
- Department of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520-8081, USA
| | - Nadeen Kaufman
- Department of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520-8081, USA
| | - Melissa Gladstone
- Department of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZX, UK
| | - Elizabeth Allen
- Department of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZX, UK
| | - Andrew J. Prendergast
- Department of Genomics and Child Health, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4AT, UK
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Jukes MCH, Ahmed I, Baker S, Draper CE, Howard SJ, McCoy DC, Obradović J, Wolf S. Principles for Adapting Assessments of Executive Function across Cultural Contexts. Brain Sci 2024; 14:318. [PMID: 38671970 PMCID: PMC11047958 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14040318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Direct assessments of executive functions (EFs) are increasingly used in research and clinical settings, with a central assumption that they assess "universal" underlying skills. Their use is spreading globally, raising questions about the cultural appropriateness of assessments devised in Western industrialized countries. We selectively reviewed multidisciplinary evidence and theory to identify sets of cultural preferences that may be at odds with the implicit assumptions of EF assessments. These preferences relate to motivation and compliance; cultural expectations for interpersonal engagement; contextualized vs. academic thinking; cultural notions of speed and time; the willingness to be silly, be incorrect, or do the opposite; and subject-matter familiarity. In each case, we discuss how the cultural preference may be incompatible with the assumptions of assessments, and how future research and practice can address the issue. Many of the cultural preferences discussed differ between interdependent and independent cultures and between schooled and unschooled populations. Adapting testing protocols to these cultural preferences in different contexts will be important for expanding our scientific understanding of EF from the narrow slice of the human population that has participated in the research to date.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ishita Ahmed
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (I.A.); (J.O.)
| | - Sara Baker
- Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 8PQ, UK;
| | - Catherine E. Draper
- SAMRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2017, South Africa;
| | - Steven J. Howard
- School of Education, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
| | - Dana Charles McCoy
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA;
| | - Jelena Obradović
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (I.A.); (J.O.)
| | - Sharon Wolf
- Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
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Palmer AR, Kalstabakken AW, Distefano R, Carlson SM, Putnam SP, Masten AS. A short executive functioning questionnaire in the context of early childhood screening: psychometric properties. Child Neuropsychol 2024:1-30. [PMID: 38511396 PMCID: PMC11451573 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2024.2329435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Early childhood executive functioning (EF) predicts later adjustment and academic achievement. However, measuring EF consistently and efficiently across settings in early childhood can be challenging. Most researchers use task-based measures of EF, but these methods present practical challenges that impede implementation in some settings. The current study of 380 3-5-year-old children in the United States evaluated the psychometric properties of a new 14-item parent-reported measure of EF in a diverse urban school district. This questionnaire aimed to capture a normative range of EF skills in ecologically valid contexts. There was evidence for two specific subscales - one that measures children's EF challenges and another that measures children's EF skills. Results suggested that several items demonstrated differential item functioning by age and race. After adjusting for measurement differences across demographic groups and controlling for age at screening, the EF challenges subscale was more strongly related to task-based measures of EF than was the EF skills subscale. EF challenges predicted third-grade math achievement, controlling for demographic variables and a performance-based measure of children's early cognitive and academic skills. Results suggest that this parent report of EF could be a useful and effective early childhood screening tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa R Palmer
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Amanda W Kalstabakken
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School Minneapolis, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Rebecca Distefano
- Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychology, Roger Williams University, Bristol, RI, USA
| | - Stephanie M Carlson
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | - Ann S Masten
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Bulterys MA, Njuguna I, Mahy M, Gulaid LA, Powis KM, Wedderburn CJ, John-Stewart G. Neurodevelopment among children exposed to HIV and uninfected in sub-Saharan Africa. J Int AIDS Soc 2023; 26 Suppl 4:e26159. [PMID: 37909232 PMCID: PMC10618877 DOI: 10.1002/jia2.26159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The population of 16 million children exposed to HIV and uninfected (CHEU) under 15 years of age continues to expand rapidly, and the estimated prevalence of CHEU exceeds 20% in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa with high HIV prevalence. Some evidence suggests that CHEU experience suboptimal neurodevelopmental outcomes compared to children born to women without HIV. In this commentary, we discuss the latest research on biologic and socio-behavioural factors associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes among CHEU. DISCUSSION Some but not all studies have noted that CHEU are at risk of poorer neurodevelopment across multiple cognitive domains, most notably in language and motor skills, in diverse settings, ages and using varied assessment tools. Foetal HIV exposure can adversely influence infant immune function, structural brain integrity and growth trajectories. Foetal exposure to antiretrovirals may also influence outcomes. Moreover, general, non-CHEU-specific risk factors for poor neurodevelopment, such as preterm birth, food insecurity, growth faltering and household violence, are amplified among CHEU; addressing these factors will require multi-factorial solutions. There is a need for rigorous harmonised approaches to identify children at the highest risk of delay. In high-burden HIV settings, existing maternal child health programmes serving the general population could adopt structured early child development programmes that educate healthcare workers on CHEU-specific risk factors and train them to conduct rapid neurodevelopmental screening tests. Community-based interventions targeting parent knowledge of optimal caregiving practices have shown to be successful in improving neurodevelopmental outcomes in children and should be adapted for CHEU. CONCLUSIONS CHEU in sub-Saharan Africa have biologic and socio-behavioural factors that may influence their neurodevelopment, brain maturation, immune system and overall health and wellbeing. Multidisciplinary research is needed to disentangle complex interactions between contributing factors. Common environmental and social risk factors for suboptimal neurodevelopment in the general population are disproportionately magnified within the CHEU population, and it is, therefore, important to draw on existing knowledge when considering the socio-behavioural pathways through which HIV exposure could impact CHEU neurodevelopment. Approaches to identify children at greatest risk for poor outcomes and multisectoral interventions are needed to ensure optimal outcomes for CHEU in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Bulterys
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Irene Njuguna
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Laurie A Gulaid
- UNICEF, eastern and southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Katheen M Powis
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Catherine J Wedderburn
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health and Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Grace John-Stewart
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Piper JD, Mazhanga C, Mapako G, Mapurisa I, Mashedze T, Munyama E, Mwapaura M, Chidhanguro D, Mpofu E, Mutasa B, Gladstone MJ, Wells JC, Langhaug LF, Tavengwa NV, Ntozini R, Prendergast AJ. Characterising school-age health and function in rural Zimbabwe using the SAHARAN toolbox. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285570. [PMID: 37167268 PMCID: PMC10174535 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We developed the School-Age Health, Activity, Resilience, Anthropometry and Neurocognitive (SAHARAN) toolbox to address the shortage of school-age assessment tools that combine growth, physical and cognitive function. Here we present i) development, acceptability and feasibility of the SAHARAN toolbox; ii) characteristics of a pilot cohort; and iii) associations between the domains measured in the cohort. METHODS Growth was measured with anthropometry, knee-heel length and skinfold thicknesses. Bioimpedance analysis measured lean mass index and phase angle. Cognition was assessed using the mental processing index, derived from the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children version 2, a fine motor finger-tapping task, and School Achievement Test (SAT). Physical function combined grip strength, broad jump and the 20m shuttle-run test to produce a total physical score. A caregiver questionnaire was performed in parallel. RESULTS The SAHARAN toolbox was feasible to implement in rural Zimbabwe, and highly acceptable to children and caregivers following some minor modifications. Eighty children with mean (SD) age 7.6 (0.2) years had mean height-for-age (HAZ) and weight-for-age Z-scores (WAZ) of -0.63 (0.81) and -0.55 (0.85), respectively. Lean mass index and total skinfold thicknesses were related to WAZ and BMI Z-score, but not to HAZ. Total physical score was associated with unit rises in HAZ (1.29, 95% CI 0.75, 1.82, p<0.001), and lean mass index (0.50, 95% CI 0.16, 0.83, p = 0.004), but not skinfold thicknesses. The SAT was associated with unit increases in the mental processing index and child socioemotional score. The caregiver questionnaire identified high levels of adversity and food insecurity. CONCLUSIONS The SAHARAN toolbox provided a feasible and acceptable holistic assessment of child growth and function in mid-childhood. We found clear associations between growth, height-adjusted lean mass and physical function, but not cognitive function. The SAHARAN toolbox could be deployed to characterise school-age growth, development and function elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe D. Piper
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clever Mazhanga
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Gloria Mapako
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Idah Mapurisa
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Tsitsi Mashedze
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Eunice Munyama
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Marian Mwapaura
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Eddington Mpofu
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Batsirai Mutasa
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Melissa J. Gladstone
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan C. Wells
- Population Policy and Practice Research and Teaching Department, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa F. Langhaug
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Naume V. Tavengwa
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Robert Ntozini
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Andrew J. Prendergast
- Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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9
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Gaskins S, Alcalá L. Studying Executive Function in Culturally Meaningful Ways. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2022.2160722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Gaskins
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern Illinois University, Chicago, USA
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10
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Willoughby MT, Camerota M, King KM, Nduku T, Piper B. Leveraging item-level accuracy and reaction time to address ceiling effects in the measurement of inhibitory control in preschool-aged children. Front Psychol 2023; 14:861441. [PMID: 36818066 PMCID: PMC9937058 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.861441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Preschool-aged children's performance on inhibitory control tasks is typically represented by the overall accuracy of their item responses (e.g., mean proportion correct). However, in settings where children vary widely in age or ability level, inhibitory control tasks are susceptible to ceiling effects, which undermine measurement precision. We have previously demonstrated a general approach for scoring inhibitory control tasks that combines item-level accuracy and reaction-time information to minimize ceiling effects. Here, we extend that approach by incorporating additional item-level reaction time data from an adjunct (simple reaction time) task. We contrast three approaches for scoring inhibitory control tasks, two of which rely exclusively on item accuracy information and a third which also considers item reaction time information. We demonstrate the impacts of these different approaches to scoring with two inhibitory control tasks that were included in a recent evaluation of the Red Light, Purple Light intervention in preprimary classrooms in Nairobi County, Kenya. We limited our study to children who met inclusion criteria at pre-test (N = 418; 51% male; mean age = 4.8 years) or post-test (N = 386; 51% male; mean age = 4.8 years). Children's performance on individual inhibitory control tasks was strongly correlated regardless of the scoring approach (rs = 0.73-0.97 across two tasks). However, the combined accuracy and reaction time scores eliminated ceiling effects that were common when only accuracy information was used. The combined accuracy and reaction time models also distinguished item-level RT into inhibitory control and processing speed components, which are distinct constructs. Results are discussed with respect to the challenges and nuances of the estimation and interpretation of inhibitory control task scores with children of varied ages and ability levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T. Willoughby
- Education and Workforce Development, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States,*Correspondence: Michael T. Willoughby, ✉
| | - Marie Camerota
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | | | - Tabitha Nduku
- International Education, RTI International, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Benjamin Piper
- International Education, RTI International, Nairobi, Kenya
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11
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Piper J, Mazhanga C, Mapako G, Mapurisa I, Mashedze T, Munyama E, Mwapaura M, Chidhanguro D, Gerema G, Tavengwa N, Ntozini R, Langhaug L, Smuk M, Rochat T, Kaufman A, Kaufman N, Gladstone M, Allen E, Prendergast A. Piloting the adaptation of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children—2nd edition (KABC-II) to assess school-age neurodevelopment in rural Zimbabwe. Wellcome Open Res 2022. [DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17902.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Neurodevelopment assessment tools for low-resource settings are urgently needed. However, most available tools were developed in high-income settings and may lack cross-cultural validity. Methods: We piloted and adapted two subtests (pattern reasoning and story completion) within the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (KABC-II) for use in rural Zimbabwean children aged 7 years old, both within the planning domain. After initial assessments of face validity, we substituted and added items in the test battery through a co-design process with fieldworkers and child development experts. To assess how successful the changes were, T-tests adjusting for unequal variances were used to compare scores between the original and adapted versions of the same subtest. ANOVA and pairwise analysis was performed to compare the performance of KABC-II subtests across domains. Intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated to explore the variability between domains. Results: Initial test scores on the planning domain were significantly lower than the other three domains of learning, sequential memory and simultaneous reasoning (P<0.001) in 50 children. Modified subtests were administered to another 20 children, who showed story completion scores that were 0.7 marks higher (95% CI 0.0, 1.4; P=0.05) and pattern reasoning scores 1.8 marks higher (95% CI 0.5, 3.2; P=0.01). Overall, the planning domain mean score increased from 8.1 (SD 2.9) to 10.6 (SD 3.4). The intra class correlation coefficient between all four KABC-II domains was initially 0.43 (95% CI 0.13, 0.64) and after modification was 0.69 (95% CI 0.37, 0.87), suggesting an increase in the construct validity. Conclusions: The KABC-II planning domain was successfully adapted to improve cross-cultural validity. Construct validity was enhanced, based on increased inter-correlations among scales. This pilot has since been applied to the SHINE follow-up study. The process of co-design to modify tests for new settings may be beneficial for other commonly used neurodevelopmental tools.
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12
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Obradović J, Finch JE, Connolly C, Siyal S, Yousafzai AK. The unique relevance of executive functions and self-regulation behaviors for understanding early childhood experiences and preschoolers' outcomes in rural Pakistan. Dev Sci 2022; 25:e13271. [PMID: 35561073 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Performance-based measures of children's executive functions (EFs) do not capture children's application of these skills during everyday emotionally-laden and socially-mediated interactions. The current study demonstrates the value of using assessor report of self-regulation behaviors (inhibitory control and positive affect/engagement) in addition to EF tasks when studying early childhood experiences and development in a rural lower-middle-income country setting. In a sample of 1302 disadvantaged 4-year-olds living in rural Pakistan, we found that directly assessed EFs were significantly related to assessor observations of children's inhibitory control and positive affect/engagement during a structured assessment protocol. However, EFs and two types of self-regulation behaviors demonstrated unique associations with children's (1) contextual experiences, as indexed by family socio-economic resources, participation in parenting interventions, and children's physical growth; and (2) age-salient developmental outcomes, as indexed by direct assessment of pre-academic skills and maternal report of prosocial behaviors and behavior problems. First, family wealth uniquely predicted only observed positive affect/engagement, whereas maternal education uniquely predicted only EFs. Second, children's antecedent linear growth was a significant predictor of both EFs and positive affect/engagement, but exposure to an enhanced nutrition intervention during the first 2 years of life and preschoolers' hair cortisol concentration were associated only with observed self-regulation behaviors. Finally, both EFs and observed positive affect/engagement uniquely predicted children's pre-academic skills. In contrast, only assessors' ratings of positive affect/engagement uniquely predicted maternal report of prosocial behaviors and only assessors' ratings of inhibitory control uniquely predicted maternal report of behavioral problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Obradović
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Jenna E Finch
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Catie Connolly
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Saima Siyal
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.,DREAM Community Development and Research Organization, Naushahero Feroze, Pakistan
| | - Aisha K Yousafzai
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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13
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Souissi S, Chamari K, Bellaj T. Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review. Front Psychol 2022; 13:991699. [PMID: 36405195 PMCID: PMC9674032 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction In the past three decades, there has been increasing interest in assessing children's Executive Functions (EF). However, studies on the conceptualization and operationalization of this construct are incongruent and guidance for clinicians and researchers aiming to assess EF is insufficient due to measurement variability. Aims The purpose of this article was to examine current theories and models of EF in children, identify their assessment instruments, issues, and challenges, and discuss their impact on children's cognitive, behavioral, social and/or emotional development. Methods This narrative review reflected on English and French scholarly articles on EF assessment in children. References were identified through searches of PubMed, Medline, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and APA PsychNet throughout the last two decades up to June 2022. Results There are commonalities despite divergence in the definition and operationalization of EF. Assessment of EF requires psychometric tests as well as rating scales that must be integrated and interpreted considering the child's biological makeup, environmental background, and cultural specificities. Conclusion Current EF theories, assessment tools, issues, and challenges were discussed in addition to the impact of their components' dysfunctions on children's development. Further studies should be conducted to develop new measurement methods and technologies to improve the ecological and ethological validity of youth assessment, treatment, and interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofiane Souissi
- Aspetar, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, Doha, Qatar
- Psychology Laboratory, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of Tunis, Tunis University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Karim Chamari
- Aspetar, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, Doha, Qatar
- Department of Biological Sciences, ISSEP Ksar-Said, La Manouba University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Tarek Bellaj
- Psychology Program, Department of Social Sciences, College of Arts and Science, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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14
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Draper CE, Barnett LM, Cook CJ, Cuartas JA, Howard SJ, McCoy DC, Merkley R, Molano A, Maldonado‐Carreño C, Obradović J, Scerif G, Valentini NC, Venetsanou F, Yousafzai AK. Publishing child development research from around the world: An unfair playing field resulting in most of the world's child population under‐represented in research. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E. Draper
- SAMRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Lisa M. Barnett
- School of Health and Social Development, Faculty of Health, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition Deakin University Geelong Australia
| | - Caylee J. Cook
- SAMRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Jorge A. Cuartas
- Harvard Graduate School of Education Cambridge USA
- Department of Psychology Universidad de los Andes Bogota Colombia
| | - Steven J. Howard
- Early Start and School of Education University of Wollongong Wollongong Australia
| | | | - Rebecca Merkley
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Cognitive Science Carleton University Ottawa Canada
| | | | | | - Jelena Obradović
- Graduate School of Education Stanford University Stanford California USA
| | - Gaia Scerif
- Department of Experimental Psychology University of Oxford Oxford United Kingdom
| | | | - Fotini Venetsanou
- School of Physical Education & Sport Science National & Kapodistrian University of Athens Athens Greece
| | - Aisha K. Yousafzai
- Department of Global Health and Population Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Boston USA
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15
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Home learning environment and physical development impact children’s executive function development and literacy in rural Côte d’Ivoire. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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16
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Ernst JR, Grenell A, Carlson SM. Associations between executive function and early math and literacy skills in preschool children. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH OPEN 2022; 3:100201. [PMID: 36578863 PMCID: PMC9794199 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The current study directly compared the magnitude of associations between executive function (EF) and math versus literacy and investigated whether they differed by age within the preschool years. Participants were 92 typically developing, preschool children in the United States (M age=58.53 months; 47.8% Female; 58.7% White; 29.3% Non-White). Children completed a developmentally sensitive battery of direct EF assessments, math and literacy achievement tests, and IQ tests. Results showed an EF Composite was associated with math, but not literacy, after controlling for age, verbal and nonverbal IQ, and socioeconomic status. Extending prior work to a younger age, we examined whether the association between EF and academic achievement was moderated by age but found no significant interactions. These findings support the link between EF and math before kindergarten and indicate a similar magnitude of associations in younger and older preschoolers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine R. Ernst
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, 51 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Amanda Grenell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 E 10th St, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States
| | - Stephanie M. Carlson
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, 51 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
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17
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Bachman HJ, Miller P, Elliott L, Duong S, Libertus M, Votruba-Drzal E. Associations among socioeconomic status and preschool-aged children's, number skills, and spatial skills: The role of executive function. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 221:105453. [PMID: 35605526 PMCID: PMC10248184 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Extensive literature has documented socioeconomic status (SES) disparities in young children's standardized math achievement, which primarily reflect differences in basic number and arithmetic skills. In addition, growing evidence indicates that direct assessments of executive function (EF) both predict standardized math achievement and mediate SES differences in standardized math tests. However, early spatial skills and children's approximate number system (ANS) acuity, critical components of later math competence, have been largely absent in this past research. The current study examined SES associations with multiple direct assessments of early ANS, cardinality, and spatial skills, as well as standardized math achievement, in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 4-year-old children (N = 149). Structural equation modeling revealed SES effect sizes of .21 for geometric sensitivity skills, .23 for ANS acuity, .39 for cardinality skills, and .28 for standardized math achievement. Furthermore, relations between SES and children's spatial skills, ANS acuity, cardinality, and standardized math skills were mediated by a composite measure of children's EF skills. Implications of pervasive SES disparities across multiple domains of early math development, as well as the mitigating role of EF, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather J Bachman
- Department of Health and Human Development, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
| | - Portia Miller
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Leanne Elliott
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Shirley Duong
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Melissa Libertus
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Elizabeth Votruba-Drzal
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
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18
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Directly assessed and adult-reported executive functions: Associations with academic skills in Ghana. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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19
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Scharpf F, Mueller SC, Hecker T. The executive functioning of Burundian refugee youth: Associations with individual, family and community factors. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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20
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Mousavi SZ, Farhadi N, Gharibzadeh S. Socioeconomic Status and Childhood Executive Function: Differing Conceptualizations, Diverse Assessments, and Decontextualized Investigations. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2022:10.1007/s12124-022-09680-w. [PMID: 35260946 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-022-09680-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Developing the ability to regulate actions, thoughts, and emotions is necessary for successfully engaging in goal-directed activities, which form the essence of success in many life situations. In this regard, executive function (EF), as an aspect of these top-down control processes, has been the subject of inquiry in many developmental studies aiming to identify its link with various other aspects of a child's life, including family socioeconomic status (SES). This article presents a critical look at the association between family SES and childhood EF by reviewing studies that provide contrasting perspectives compared to the generally reported positive correlation between these two constructs. We first address the various aspects of assessing SES and childhood EF, emphasizing their multifaceted nature. Next, we discuss the interplays between different components of these two constructs, especially as it unfolds in various cultural contexts. Finally, we conclude by discussing mainly neglected lines of research that could further improve our understanding of the extent of socioeconomic impacts on child development, specifically regarding executive function. Considering these lines of research is a necessary step to a more accurate analysis of the link between socioeconomic factors and childhood executive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyyedeh Zeinab Mousavi
- Institute for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Daneshjou Boulevard, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Nazanin Farhadi
- Institute for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Daneshjou Boulevard, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahriar Gharibzadeh
- Institute for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Daneshjou Boulevard, Tehran, Iran
- Basir eye health research center, Sheibani alley, North Jamalzadeh Street, Tehran, Iran
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21
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Gago Galvagno LG, Miller SE, De Grandis C, Elgier AM. Emerging coherence and relations to communication among executive function tasks in toddlers: Evidence from a Latin American sample. INFANCY 2021; 26:962-979. [PMID: 34237203 DOI: 10.1111/infa.12421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Recent work within early executive function (EF) seems to suggest that toddlers show distinct patterns of development, involving poorly correlated performance across EF tasks and significant improvements over relatively short periods of time. The present study sought to extend these findings by investigating evidence for these patterns in toddlers and the existence of more traditional patterns of EF (e.g., correlations between tasks, links to language) when using the same tasks in a novel Latin American sample. Eighty toddlers (18-24 months) and sixty young preschoolers (30-36) months completed a battery of EF tasks, early social communication, and receptive and expressive language measures. Results indicated that toddlers showed similar distinct patterns of development (i.e., few relations between tasks and links to responding to joint attention), but by early preschool a more cohesive EF and links to language were present. Further, work demonstrated significant age (older children outperformed younger children), gender (girls outperformed boys), and socioeconomic differences (satisfied basic needs outperformed unsatisfied basic needs, but only on the snack delay). This work provides evidence for patterns of emerging EF development within this novel cultural sample (and evidence for group differences) that may be supported by communicative and representational development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas G Gago Galvagno
- Facultad de Psicología y Relaciones Humanas, Universidad Abierta Interamericana, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Cognición y Políticas Públicas, Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigaciones, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Stephanie E Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi, USA
| | - Carolina De Grandis
- Facultad de Psicología y Relaciones Humanas, Universidad Abierta Interamericana, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Cognición y Políticas Públicas, Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigaciones, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Angel M Elgier
- Facultad de Psicología y Relaciones Humanas, Universidad Abierta Interamericana, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Cognición y Políticas Públicas, Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigaciones, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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22
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Chen SH, Deng XF, Zhang E, Wang LK, Liu CH. Self-Regulatory Development in Children from Chinese Immigrant Families: Evidence for Commonality and Specificity. Child Dev 2021; 92:e1126-e1137. [PMID: 34138465 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A central theme of acculturative specificity is the heterogeneity of the immigrant experience. This study integrated this application of the Specificity Principle with intergenerational transmission models of self-regulation and identified both common and specific pathways in the self-regulatory development of Chinese American children in immigrant families (N = 169, Mage = 9.2 years). Consistent with intergenerational transmission models, results indicated associations between parents' and children's effortful control, with the mediation of these associations via authoritarian parenting. Parental education, family income, and children's bilingual proficiency were also uniquely associated with children's executive function and effortful control. Together, findings provide new directions for research with ethnic minority immigrant families, and underscore the utility of within-group approaches in advancing research on ethnic minority children's development.
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23
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Mousavi SZ, Gharibzadeh S. Growing up in a challenging environment: A cultural analysis of self-regulation development in poverty. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2021.1928490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Shahriar Gharibzadeh
- Institute for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
- Basir Eye Health Research Center, Tehran, Iran
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24
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Willoughby MT, Piper B, King KM, Nduku T, Henny C, Zimmermann S. Testing the Efficacy of the Red-Light Purple-Light Games in Preprimary Classrooms in Kenya. Front Psychol 2021; 12:633049. [PMID: 33776855 PMCID: PMC7990763 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
This study adapted and tested the efficacy of the Red-Light Purple-Light (RLPL) games for improving executive function (EF) skills in preprimary classrooms in Nairobi, Kenya. A cluster randomized controlled trial was used to evaluate the efficacy of the adapted RLPL intervention. Specifically, 24 centers (including 48 classrooms) were randomized to the RLPL or a wait-list control condition. Consistent with previous studies, participating classrooms delivered 16 lessons across an 8-week intervention period. A total of 479 children were recruited into the study. After exclusions based on child age and data quality, 451 and 404 children (90% retention) had completed computerized assessments of EF skills at pre- and posttest assessments, respectively. Children in the RLPL centers did not demonstrate any improvements in EF skills relative to their peers in the wait-list control condition (Cohen's ds = -0.14 to 0.03, all ps > 0.20). Exploratory tests of moderators (language of assessment, grade, school type, baseline ability) were also all null. Results are discussed with respect to measurement limitations and contextual factors that may explain the null results of RLPL on EF skills in young children in Kenya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T. Willoughby
- Education and Workforce Development, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States
| | - Benjamin Piper
- International Education, RTI International, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Tabitha Nduku
- International Education, RTI International, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Catherine Henny
- International Education, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States
| | - Sarah Zimmermann
- Research Computing Division, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States
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25
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Armstrong-Carter E, Finch JE, Siyal S, Yousafzai AK, Obradović J. Biological sensitivity to context in Pakistani preschoolers: Hair cortisol and family wealth are interactively associated with girls' cognitive skills. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 62:1046-1061. [PMID: 32458442 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Many young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) face heightened risk for experiencing environmental adversity, which is linked with poorer developmental outcomes. Children's stress physiology can shed light on why children are differentially susceptible to adversity. However, no known studies have examined whether links between adversity and children's development are moderated by children's stress physiology in LMICs. The present study revealed significant interactive effects of hair cortisol concentrations, an index of chronic physiological stress regulation, and family wealth on preschoolers' cognitive skills in rural Pakistan. In a sample of 535 4-year-old children (n = 342 girls), we found significant associations between family wealth and direct assessments of verbal intelligence, pre-academic skills, and executive functions only in girls with lower hair cortisol concentrations. Specifically, girls with lower cortisol concentrations displayed greater cognitive skills if they came from relatively wealthier families, but lower cognitive skills if they came from very poor families. There were no significant associations among boys. Results provide evidence of biological sensitivity to context among young girls in a LMIC, perhaps reflecting, in part, sex differences in daily experiences of environmental adversity.
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