1
|
Wu S, Shao T, Xie J, Li J, Sun L, Zhang Y, Zhao L, Wang L, Li X, Zhang L, Wang R. MiR-199a-3p regulates HCT-8 cell autophagy and apoptosis in response to Cryptosporidium parvum infection by targeting MTOR. Commun Biol 2024; 7:924. [PMID: 39085368 PMCID: PMC11291649 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06632-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The microRNAs (miRNAs) of their hosts play an important role in regulating both the innate and adaptive immune responses to Cryptosporidium parvum infection. The mechanisms of autophagy and apoptosis are important components of the defense system against C. parvum infection. In this study, we investigate the role of miRNA-199a-3p in regulating MTOR-mediated autophagy and apoptosis in HCT-8 cells induced by C. parvum. The expression of miR-199a-3p increased at 3, 6 and 12 hours postinfection (hpi) but decreased at 24 and 48 hpi. The upregulation of miR-199a-3p promoted autophagy and apoptosis and limited the parasite burden in HCT-8 cells after C. parvum infection. The downregulation of miR-199a-3p inhibited the autophagy and apoptosis induced by C. parvum and enhanced the parasite burden in HCT-8 cells. A luciferase reporter showed that MTOR was a target gene of miR-199a-3p. Suppressed expression of MTOR by small interfering RNA (siRNA) promoted autophagy and apoptosis and limited C. parvum burden in HCT-8 cells. Co-transfection with miR-199a-3p inhibitor or si-mTOR revealed that miR-199a-3p regulates autophagy and apoptosis in HCT-8 cells through MTOR, to resist C. parvum infection. In conclusion, intestinal epithelial cells defend against C. parvum infection by regulating their autophagy and apoptosis through the miR-199a-3p-MTOR axis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shanbo Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Tianren Shao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Jingjing Xie
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Juanfeng Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Lulu Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Yafang Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Lijie Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Luyang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Xiaoying Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Longxian Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Rongjun Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sharmin Z, Jin K, Gong AY, Deng S, Pok C, Graham ML, Wang S, Mathy NW, Shibata A, Chen XM. LncRNA Nostrill promotes interferon-γ-stimulated gene transcription and facilitates intestinal epithelial cell-intrinsic anti- Cryptosporidium defense. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1397117. [PMID: 39040107 PMCID: PMC11260782 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1397117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Intestinal epithelial cells possess the requisite molecular machinery to initiate cell-intrinsic defensive responses against intracellular pathogens, including intracellular parasites. Interferons(IFNs) have been identified as cornerstones of epithelial cell-intrinsic defense against such pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA transcripts (>200 nt) not translated into protein and represent a critical regulatory component of mucosal defense. We report here that lncRNA Nostrill facilitates IFN-γ-stimulated intestinal epithelial cell-intrinsic defense against infection by Cryptosporidium, an important opportunistic pathogen in AIDS patients and a common cause of diarrhea in young children. Nostrill promotes transcription of a panel of genes controlled by IFN-γ through facilitating Stat1 chromatin recruitment and thus, enhances expression of several genes associated with cell-intrinsic defense in intestinal epithelial cells in response to IFN-γ stimulation, including Igtp, iNos, and Gadd45g. Induction of Nostrill enhances IFN-γ-stimulated intestinal epithelial defense against Cryptosporidium infection, which is associated with an enhanced autophagy in intestinal epithelial cells. Our findings reveal that Nostrill enhances the transcription of a set of genes regulated by IFN-γ in intestinal epithelial cells. Moreover, induction of Nostrill facilitates the IFN-γ-mediated epithelial cell-intrinsic defense against cryptosporidial infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zinat Sharmin
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Kehua Jin
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, Hubei, China
| | - Ai-Yu Gong
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Silu Deng
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Chansorena Pok
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Marion L. Graham
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Shuhong Wang
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Nicholas W. Mathy
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Annemarie Shibata
- Department of Biology, Creighton University College of Arts and Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Xian-Ming Chen
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Greigert V, Saraav I, Son J, Zhu Y, Dayao D, Antia A, Tzipori S, Witola WH, Stappenbeck TS, Ding S, Sibley LD. Cryptosporidium infection of human small intestinal epithelial cells induces type III interferon and impairs infectivity of Rotavirus. Gut Microbes 2024; 16:2297897. [PMID: 38189373 PMCID: PMC10793699 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2023.2297897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a major cause of severe diarrheal disease in infants from resource poor settings. The majority of infections are caused by the human-specific pathogen C. hominis and absence of in vitro growth platforms has limited our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and development of effective treatments. To address this problem, we developed a stem cell-derived culture system for C. hominis using human enterocytes differentiated under air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions. Human ALI cultures supported robust growth and complete development of C. hominis in vitro including all life cycle stages. Cryptosporidium infection induced a strong interferon response from enterocytes, possibly driven, in part, by an endogenous dsRNA virus in the parasite. Prior infection with Cryptosporidium induced type III IFN secretion and consequently blunted infection with Rotavirus, including live attenuated vaccine strains. The development of hALI provides a platform for further studies on human-specific pathogens, including clinically important coinfections that may alter vaccine efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Iti Saraav
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Juhee Son
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yinxing Zhu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Denise Dayao
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Avan Antia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Saul Tzipori
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Thaddeus S. Stappenbeck
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Siyuan Ding
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yao Q, Fan YY, Huang S, Hu GR, Song JK, Yang X, Zhao GH. MiR-4521 affects the propagation of Cryptosporidium parvum in HCT-8 cells through targeting foxm1 by regulating cell apoptosis. Acta Trop 2024; 249:107057. [PMID: 37913972 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.107057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum could regulate the expression of microRNAs of epithelial cells to facilitate its intracellular propagation. MiR-4521 has been reported to play an important role during the development and progression of tumors and infectious diseases by regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy. However, the implication of miR-4521 during C. parvum infection was still unknown. In this study, the expression of miR-4521 was found to be upregulated in HCT-8 cells infected with C. parvum from 8 h post-infection (pi) to 48 hpi, and its upregulation would be related with the TLR/NF-κB signal pathway during C. parvum infection. One potential target of miR-4521, foxm1, was down-regulated in HCT-8 cells from 24 hpi to 48 hpi, and the expression of foxm1 was negatively regulated by miR-4521. The target relationship between miR-4521 and foxm1 was further validated by using dual luciferase reporter assay. Further studies showed that miR-4521 promoted the propagation of C. parvum in HCT-8 cells through targeting foxm1 by regulating BCL2-mediating cell apoptosis. These results contribute to further understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of host miRNAs during Cryptosporidium infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Yao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Ying-Ying Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Shuang Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Gui-Rong Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Jun-Ke Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Xin Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Guang-Hui Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China; Engineering Research Center of Efficient New Vaccines for Animals, Ministry of Education, Yangling 712100, China; Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling 712100, China; Engineering Research Center of Efficient New Vaccines for Animals, Universities of Shaanxi Province, Yangling 712100, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Liu RD, Meng XY, Li CL, Lin XZ, Xu QY, Xu H, Long SR, Cui J, Wang ZQ. Trichinella spiralis cathepsin L damages the tight junctions of intestinal epithelial cells and mediates larval invasion. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011816. [PMID: 38048314 PMCID: PMC10721182 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cathepsin L, a lysosomal enzyme, participates in diverse physiological processes. Recombinant Trichinella spiralis cathepsin L domains (rTsCatL2) exhibited natural cysteine protease activity and hydrolyzed host immunoglobulin and extracellular matrix proteins in vitro, but its functions in larval invasion are unknown. The aim of this study was to explore its functions in T. spiralis invasion of the host's intestinal epithelial cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS RNAi significantly suppressed the expression of TsCatL mRNA and protein with TsCatL specific siRNA-302. T. spiralis larval invasion of Caco-2 cells was reduced by 39.87% and 38.36%, respectively, when anti-TsCatL2 serum and siRNA-302 were used. Mice challenged with siRNA-302-treated muscle larvae (ML) exhibited a substantial reduction in intestinal infective larvae, adult worm, and ML burden compared to the PBS group, with reductions of 44.37%, 47.57%, and 57.06%, respectively. The development and fecundity of the females from the mice infected with siRNA-302-treated ML was significantly inhibited. After incubation of rTsCatL2 with Caco-2 cells, immunofluorescence test showed that the rTsCatL2 gradually entered into the cells, altered the localization of cellular tight junction proteins (claudin 1, occludin and zo-1), adhesion junction protein (e-cadherin) and extracellular matrix protein (laminin), and intercellular junctions were lost. Western blot showed a 58.65% reduction in claudin 1 expression in Caco-2 cells treated with rTsCatL2. Co-IP showed that rTsCatL2 interacted with laminin and collagen I but not with claudin 1, e-cadherin, occludin and fibronectin in Caco-2 cells. Moreover, rTsCatL2 disrupted the intestinal epithelial barrier by inducing cellular autophagy. CONCLUSIONS rTsCatL2 disrupts the intestinal epithelial barrier and facilitates T. spiralis larval invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruo Dan Liu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Xiang Yu Meng
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Chen Le Li
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Xin Zhi Lin
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Qiu Yi Xu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Han Xu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Shao Rong Long
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Jing Cui
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| | - Zhong Quan Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wu J, Yang Y, Liu L, Zhu W, Liu M, Yu X, Li W. ROS-AMPK/mTOR-dependent enterocyte autophagy is involved in the regulation of Giardia infection-related tight junction protein and nitric oxide levels. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1120996. [PMID: 36999034 PMCID: PMC10043474 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1120996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis, a cosmopolitan noninvasive protozoan parasite of zoonotic concern and public health importance, infects the upper portions of the small intestine and causes one of the most common gastrointestinal diseases globally termed giardiasis, especially in situations lacking safe drinking water and adequate sanitation services. The pathogenesis of giardiasis is complex and involves multiple factors from the interaction of Giardia and intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic pathway that involves multiple pathological conditions including infection. Thus far, it remains uncertain if autophagy occurs in Giardia-infected IECs and if autophagic process is associated with the pathogenic factors of giardiasis, such as tight junction (TJ) barrier defects and nitric oxide (NO) release of IECs. Here Giardia-in vitro exposed IECs showed upregulation of a series of autophagy-related molecules, such as LC3, Beclin1, Atg7, Atg16L1, and ULK1, and downregulation of p62 protein. IEC autophagy induced by Giardia was further assessed by using autophagy flux inhibitor, chloroquine (CQ), with the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I significantly increased and downregulated p62 significantly reversed. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine (3-MA) rather than CQ could markedly reverse Giardia-induced downregulation of TJ proteins (claudin-1, claudin-4, occludin, and ZO-1; also known as epithelial cell markers) and NO release, implying the involvement of early-stage autophagy in TJ/NO regulation. We subsequently confirmed the role of ROS-mediated AMPK/mTOR signaling in modulating Giardia-induced autophagy, TJ protein expression, and NO release. In turn, impairment of early-stage autophagy by 3-MA and late-stage autophagy by CQ both exhibited an exacerbated effect on ROS accumulation in IECs. Collectively, we present the first attempt to link the occurrence of IEC autophagy with Giardia infection in vitro, and provides novel insights into the contribution of ROS-AMPK/mTOR-dependent autophagy to Giardia infection-related downregulation of TJ protein and NO levels.
Collapse
|
7
|
Yang H, Zhang M, Wang X, Gong P, Zhang N, Zhang X, Li X, Li J. Cryptosporidium parvum maintains intracellular survival by activating the host cellular EGFR-PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Mol Immunol 2023; 154:69-79. [PMID: 36621060 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2023.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a critical cellular mechanism in helping infected cells remove intracellular pathogens and is countered by pathogens maintaining intracellular survival by regulating autophagy through the manipulation of the host cellular signal transduction pathway. Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic intracellular but extracytoplasmic protozoon that causes diarrhea in infants and young children worldwide. However, it is still unclear how Cryptosporidium adapts to intracellular survival. In the present study, we demonstrated that C. parvum could activate the EGFR-PI3K/Akt signaling pathway to promote intracellular survival in HCT-8 cells. The western blot results showed that C. parvum induced EGFR and Akt phosphorylation in HCT-8 cells. The EGFR inhibitor AG1478 decreased EGFR and Akt phosphorylation, and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 impaired Akt phosphorylation induced by C. parvum in HCT-8 cells. Inhibition of EGFR or Akt decreased the number of intracellular parasites. Second, low-dose infection of C. parvum triggered complete autophagy and enhanced autophagic flux in HCT-8 cells. The expressions of mTOR and p62 were decreased, and the expressions of LC3 and Beclin1 were increased in C. parvum-infected HCT-8 cells. Transfection with siBeclin1 or siATG7 reduced LC3 accumulation, while lysosome inhibitor E64d+pepA increased LC3 accumulation induced by C. parvum in HCT-8 cells. Intracellular parasite proliferation was decreased when treated with autophagy inducer rapamycin, whereas autophagy inhibitor 3-MA, E64d+pep A, siBeclin1 or siATG7 increased intracellular parasites. Third, C. parvum inhibited autophagy killing to promote its own intracellular survival by activating EGFR-Akt signaling pathway. The EGFR inhibitor AG1478 enhanced autophagic flux, and Akt inhibitor IV increased LC3 accumulation and inhibited C. parvum proliferation in HCT-8 cells. Akt inhibitor IV-inhibited C. parvum proliferation was attenuated by E64d+pepA. In summary, C. parvum could maintain intracellular survival by inhibiting autophagy via EGFR-PI3K/Akt pathway. These results revealed a new mechanism for the interaction of C. parvum with host cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heng Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Mengge Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xiaocen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Pengtao Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xichen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xin Li
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Jianhua Li
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mead JR. Early immune and host cell responses to Cryptosporidium infection. FRONTIERS IN PARASITOLOGY 2023; 2:1113950. [PMID: 37325809 PMCID: PMC10269812 DOI: 10.3389/fpara.2023.1113950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are opportunistic protozoan parasites that infect epithelial cells of the small intestine and cause diarrheal illness in both immunocompetent and immunodeficient individuals. These infections may be more severe in immunocompromised individuals and young children, especially in children under 2 in developing countries. The parasite has a global distribution and is an important cause of childhood diarrhea where it may result in cognitive impairment and growth deficits. Current therapies are limited with nitazoxanide being the only FDA-approved drug. However, it is not efficacious in immunocompromised patients. Additionally, there are no vaccines for cryptosporidiosis available. While acquired immunity is needed to clear Cryptosporidium parasites completely, innate immunity and early responses to infection are important in keeping the infection in check so that adaptive responses have time to develop. Infection is localized to the epithelial cells of the gut. Therefore, host cell defenses are important in the early response to infection and may be triggered through toll receptors or inflammasomes which induce a number of signal pathways, interferons, cytokines, and other immune mediators. Chemokines and chemokine receptors are upregulated which recruit immune cells such neutrophils, NK cells, and macrophages to the infection site to help in host cell defense as well as dendritic cells that are an important bridge between innate and adaptive responses. This review will focus on the host cell responses and the immune responses that are important in the early stages of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan R. Mead
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Healthcare Organization of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
The Effect of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on Growth of Cryptosporidium parvum In Vitro. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091822. [PMID: 36144424 PMCID: PMC9505670 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In a previous study, we observed an increase in the severity of cryptosporidial infection corresponding to decreased levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Therefore, we decided to examine the effect of SCFAs on Cryptosporidium growth in human ileocecal adenocarcinoma (HTC-8) cells. HTC-8 cells were infected with 1 × 105 C. parvum oocysts. After 48 h of incubation with selected SCFAs, cells were fixed and labeled with monoclonal antibody directed to all intracellular stages, and the number of parasites was quantitated using a fluorescent microscope. Acetate, butyrate, propionate and valproate significantly inhibited growth, with an EC50 between 4 and 10 mM. Additionally, when combined, butyrate, acetate and propionate showed increased efficacy. Butyrate also inhibited growth when incubated with sporozoites prior to infection of host cell monolayers. In addition, we looked at possible mechanisms of action of inhibition. A combination of C. parvum infection and butyrate treatment led to increases in apoptosis and certain inflammatory cytokines. We conclude that acetate, propionate and butyrate have direct inhibitory activities in host cells against C. parvum, and butyrate can also affect sporozoite infectivity directly. While not preventing infection, SCFAs may help in keeping the infection low or in check.
Collapse
|
10
|
Johansen ØH, Abdissa A, Bjørang O, Zangenberg M, Sharew B, Alemu Y, Moyo S, Mekonnen Z, Langeland N, Robertson LJ, Hanevik K. Oocyst Shedding Dynamics in Children with Cryptosporidiosis: a Prospective Clinical Case Series in Ethiopia. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0274121. [PMID: 35699433 PMCID: PMC9430463 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02741-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge on the duration of Cryptosporidium oocyst shedding, and how shedding may be affected by subtypes and clinical parameters, is limited. Reduced transmission may be a secondary benefit of cryptosporidiosis treatment in high-prevalence areas. We conducted a prospective clinical case series in children of <5 years presenting with diarrhea to a health center and a hospital in Ethiopia over an 18-month period. Stool samples were collected repeatedly from children diagnosed with cryptosporidiosis for up to 60 days. Samples were examined, and Cryptosporidium shedding was quantified, using auramine phenol, immunofluorescent antibody staining, and quantitative PCR (qPCR). In addition, species determination and subtyping were used to attempt to distinguish between new infections and ongoing shedding. Duration and quantity of shedding over time were estimated by time-to-event and quantitative models (sex- and age-adjusted). We also explored how diarrheal severity, acute malnutrition, and Cryptosporidium subtypes correlated with temporal shedding patterns. From 53 confirmed cryptosporidiosis cases, a median of 4 (range 1 to 5) follow-up stool samples were collected and tested for Cryptosporidium. The median duration of oocyst shedding was 31 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 26 to 36 days) after onset of diarrhea, with similar estimates from the quantitative models (31 days, 95% CI 27 to 37 days). Genotype shift occurred in 5 cases (9%). A 10-fold drop in quantity occurred per week for the first 4 weeks. Prolonged oocyst shedding is common in a pediatric clinical population with cryptosporidiosis. We suggest that future intervention trials should evaluate both clinical efficacy and total parasite shedding duration as trial endpoints. IMPORTANCE Cryptosporidiosis is an important cause of diarrhea, malnutrition, and deaths in young children in low-income countries. The infection spreads from person to person. After infection, prolonged release of the Cryptosporidium parasite in stool (shedding) may contribute to further spread of the disease. If diagnosis and treatment are made available, diarrhea will be treated and deaths will be reduced. An added benefit may be to reduce transmission to others. However, shedding duration and its characteristics in children is not well known. We therefore investigated the duration of shedding in a group of young children who sought health care for diarrhea in a hospital and health center in Ethiopia. The study followed 53 children with cryptosporidiosis for 2 months. We found that, on average, children released the parasite for 31 days after the diarrhea episode started. Point-of-care treatment of cryptosporidiosis may therefore reduce onward spread of the Cryptosporidium parasite within communities and households.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Øystein H. Johansen
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Microbiology, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Alemseged Abdissa
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Ola Bjørang
- Department of Microbiology, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Mike Zangenberg
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Centre for Medical Parasitology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Bizuwarek Sharew
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Yonas Alemu
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Sabrina Moyo
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Zeleke Mekonnen
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Nina Langeland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lucy J. Robertson
- Parasitology, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zhao SS, Tao DL, Chen JM, Chen X, Geng XL, Wang JW, Yang X, Song JK, Liu Q, Zhao GH. Neospora caninum infection activated autophagy of caprine endometrial epithelial cells via mTOR signaling. Vet Parasitol 2022; 304:109685. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2022.109685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
12
|
El-Refai SA, Helwa MA, Rakha EB, Atia AF. Autophagy - related 16 - like 1 single nucleotide gene polymorphism increases the risk and severity of Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2021; 245:111407. [PMID: 34358586 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2021.111407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) is an intracellular parasite of the intestinal cells. It causes cryptosporidiosis that can be fatal in immunosuppressed individuals. Autophagy is a process to eliminate intracellular microbes. The autophagy-related 16 - like 1 (ATG16L1) gene encodes proteins involved in the autophagy pathway. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in this gene increases the invasion and survival of the intracellular microbes. This study aimed to assess whether SNP in the ATG16L1 gene influences the risk and severity of cryptosporidiosis. Group I: cases with C. parvum infection (C. parvum, n = 40) and group II: healthy control (HC, n = 120) were included. Genotyping of the ATG16L1 gene was done for all participants to determine the polymorphism status as AA, GG, or AG genotype. A significant association between C. parvum infection and ATG16L1 genotypes was detected. C. parvum group had a significantly higher frequency of GG genotype and G allele when compared to HC group. The genotypes (AG + GG) and G allele had 2.428 and 2.13 folds risk of C. parvum infection when compared to the AA genotype and the A allele. Patients with the AG + GG genotype had statistically significant higher Cryptosporidium oocyst counts in stool, higher infection intensity, more frequency of vomiting and dehydration, longer disease duration, and more recurrence. The GG or AG genotypes were independent risk factors in the disease severity (p- value = 0.013). In conclusion, ATG16L1 SNP increased the risk and severity of cryptosporidiosis. Thus, individuals with such SNP can benefit from autophagy up-regulating approaches in decreasing the risk and controlling C. parvum infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samar A El-Refai
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed A Helwa
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt.
| | - Ehab B Rakha
- Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, 60, El Gomhoria Sreet, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt.
| | - Amany F Atia
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wu XM, Yang X, Fan XC, Chen X, Wang YX, Zhang LX, Song JK, Zhao GH. Serum metabolomics in chickens infected with Cryptosporidium baileyi. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:336. [PMID: 34174965 PMCID: PMC8235856 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04834-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cryptosporidium baileyi is an economically important zoonotic pathogen that causes serious respiratory symptoms in chickens for which no effective control measures are currently available. An accumulating body of evidence indicates the potential and usefulness of metabolomics to further our understanding of the interaction between pathogens and hosts, and to search for new diagnostic or pharmacological biomarkers of complex microorganisms. The aim of this study was to identify the impact of C. baileyi infection on the serum metabolism of chickens and to assess several metabolites as potential diagnostic biomarkers for C. baileyi infection. Methods Ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) and subsequent multivariate statistical analysis were applied to investigate metabolomics profiles in the serum samples of chickens infected with C. baileyi, and to identify potential metabolites that can be used to distinguish chickens infected with C. baileyi from non-infected birds. Results Multivariate statistical analysis identified 138 differential serum metabolites between mock- and C. baileyi-infected chickens at 5 days post-infection (dpi), including 115 upregulated and 23 downregulated compounds. These metabolites were significantly enriched into six pathways, of which two pathways associated with energy and lipid metabolism, namely glycerophospholipid metabolism and sphingolipid metabolism, respectively, were the most enriched. Interestingly, some important immune-related pathways were also significantly enriched, including the intestinal immune network for IgA production, autophagy and cellular senescence. Nine potential C. baileyi-responsive metabolites were identified, including choline, sirolimus, all-trans retinoic acid, PC(14:0/22:1(13Z)), PC(15:0/22:6(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), PE(16:1(9Z)/24:1(15Z)), phosphocholine, SM(d18:0/16:1(9Z)(OH)) and sphinganine. Conclusions This is the first report on serum metabolic profiling of chickens with early-stage C. baileyi infection. The results provide novel insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of C. baileyi in chickens. Graphic abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04834-y.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Mei Wu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xian-Cheng Fan
- Center of Animal Disease Prevention and Control of Huyi District, Xi'an, 710300, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Xin Wang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China
| | - Long-Xian Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun-Ke Song
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China
| | - Guang-Hui Zhao
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Karpe AV, Hutton ML, Mileto SJ, James ML, Evans C, Shah RM, Ghodke AB, Hillyer KE, Metcalfe SS, Liu JW, Walsh T, Lyras D, Palombo EA, Beale DJ. Cryptosporidiosis Modulates the Gut Microbiome and Metabolism in a Murine Infection Model. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11060380. [PMID: 34208228 PMCID: PMC8230837 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11060380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a major human health concern globally. Despite well-established methods, misdiagnosis remains common. Our understanding of the cryptosporidiosis biochemical mechanism remains limited, compounding the difficulty of clinical diagnosis. Here, we used a systems biology approach to investigate the underlying biochemical interactions in C57BL/6J mice infected with Cryptosporidium parvum. Faecal samples were collected daily following infection. Blood, liver tissues and luminal contents were collected 10 days post infection. High-resolution liquid chromatography and low-resolution gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry were used to analyse the proteomes and metabolomes of these samples. Faeces and luminal contents were additionally subjected to 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Univariate and multivariate statistical analysis of the acquired data illustrated altered host and microbial energy pathways during infection. Glycolysis/citrate cycle metabolites were depleted, while short-chain fatty acids and D-amino acids accumulated. An increased abundance of bacteria associated with a stressed gut environment was seen. Host proteins involved in energy pathways and Lactobacillus glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase were upregulated during cryptosporidiosis. Liver oxalate also increased during infection. Microbiome–parasite relationships were observed to be more influential than the host–parasite association in mediating major biochemical changes in the mouse gut during cryptosporidiosis. Defining this parasite–microbiome interaction is the first step towards building a comprehensive cryptosporidiosis model towards biomarker discovery, and rapid and accurate diagnostics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Avinash V. Karpe
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; (A.V.K.); (R.M.S.); (K.E.H.); (S.S.M.)
| | - Melanie L. Hutton
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.L.H.); (S.J.M.); (M.L.J.); (C.E.); (D.L.)
| | - Steven J. Mileto
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.L.H.); (S.J.M.); (M.L.J.); (C.E.); (D.L.)
| | - Meagan L. James
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.L.H.); (S.J.M.); (M.L.J.); (C.E.); (D.L.)
| | - Chris Evans
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.L.H.); (S.J.M.); (M.L.J.); (C.E.); (D.L.)
| | - Rohan M. Shah
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; (A.V.K.); (R.M.S.); (K.E.H.); (S.S.M.)
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia;
| | - Amol B. Ghodke
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, Department of Horticulture, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- BIO21 Institute, School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Katie E. Hillyer
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; (A.V.K.); (R.M.S.); (K.E.H.); (S.S.M.)
| | - Suzanne S. Metcalfe
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; (A.V.K.); (R.M.S.); (K.E.H.); (S.S.M.)
| | - Jian-Wei Liu
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Research and Innovation Park, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia; (J.-W.L.); (T.W.)
| | - Tom Walsh
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Research and Innovation Park, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia; (J.-W.L.); (T.W.)
| | - Dena Lyras
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.L.H.); (S.J.M.); (M.L.J.); (C.E.); (D.L.)
| | - Enzo A. Palombo
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia;
| | - David J. Beale
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; (A.V.K.); (R.M.S.); (K.E.H.); (S.S.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-7-3833-5774
| |
Collapse
|