Surgery for constipation: systematic review and practice recommendations: Results V: Sacral Nerve Stimulation

Sacral Neuromodulation Versus Conservative Treatment for Refractory Idiopathic Slow-transit Constipation: The Randomized Clinical No.2-Trial

OBJECTIVE

Assess the effectiveness of sacral neuromodulation (SNM) versus personalized conservative treatment (PCT) in patients with refractory idiopathic slow-transit constipation (STC).

BACKGROUND

Evidence on SNM for idiopathic STC is conflicting and of suboptimal methodological quality.

METHODS

The No.2-Trial was a multicenter, open-label, pragmatic, randomized trial performed in 2 Dutch hospitals. Sixty-seven patients with idiopathic STC, a defecation frequency <3 per week and refractory (ie, unresponsive) to maximal conservative (nonoperative) treatment were included. Exclusion criteria included outlet obstruction, rectal prolapse, and previous colon surgery. Patients were randomized (3:2) to SNM (n=41) or PCT (n=26) with randomization minimization between February 21, 2017 and March 12, 2020. In SNM patients, an implantable pulse generator was implanted after a successful 4-week test stimulation. PCT patients received conservative treatment such as laxatives or retrograde colonic irrigation. The primary outcome was treatment success (defined as average defecation frequency ≥3 per week) after 6 months. Secondary outcomes included constipation severity, fatigue, quality of life, and adverse events. Analysis was according to intention-to-treat.

RESULTS

After 6 months, 22 (53.7%) patients were successfully treated with SNM versus 1 (3.8%) patient with PCT (odds ratio 36.4, 95% CI 3.4-387.5, P =0.003). At 6 months, SNM patients reported lower constipation severity and fatigue scores ( P <0.001) and improved quality of life compared with PCT ( P <0.001). Eight serious adverse events (6 SNM, 2 PCT) and 78 adverse events (68 SNM, 10 PCT) were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

SNM is a promising surgical treatment option in a homogeneous group of adults and adolescents with refractory idiopathic STC. No.2-Trial registered at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02961582.

Effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of sacral neuromodulation for idiopathic slow-transit constipation: a systematic review

AIM

Sacral neuromodulation (SNM) is a minimally invasive treatment option for functional constipation. Evidence regarding its effectiveness is contradictory, driven by heterogeneous study populations and designs. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of SNM in children and adults with refractory idiopathic slow-transit constipation (STC).

METHOD

OVID Medline, OVID Embase, Cochrane Library, the KSR Evidence Database, the NHS Economic Evaluation Database and the International HTA Database were searched up to 25 May 2023. For effectiveness outcomes, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were selected. For safety outcomes, all study designs were selected. For cost-effectiveness outcomes, trial- and model-based economic evaluations were selected for review. Study selection, risk of bias and quality assessment, and data extraction were independently performed by two reviewers. For the intervention 'sacral neuromodulation' effectiveness outcomes included defaecation frequency and constipation severity. Safety and cost-effectiveness outcomes were, respectively, adverse events and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios.

RESULTS

Of 1390 records reviewed, 67 studies were selected for full-text screening. For effectiveness, one cross-over and one parallel-group RCT was included, showing contradictory results. Eleven studies on safety were included (four RCTs, three prospective cohort studies and four retrospective cohort studies). Overall infection rates varied between 0% and 22%, whereas reoperation rates varied between 0% and 29%. One trial-based economic evaluation was included, which concluded that SNM was not cost-effective compared with personalized conservative treatment at a time horizon of 6 months. The review findings are limited by the small number of available studies and the heterogeneity in terms of study populations, definitions of refractory idiopathic STC and study designs.

CONCLUSION

Evidence for the (cost-)effectiveness of SNM in children and adults with refractory idiopathic STC is inconclusive. Reoperation rates of up to 29% were reported.

Time trend in the surgical management of obstructed defecation syndrome: a multicenter experience on behalf of the Italian Society of Colorectal Surgery (SICCR)

Background

Surgical management of obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) is challenging, with several surgical options showing inconsistent functional results over time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the trend in surgical management of ODS in a 10-year timeframe across Italian referral centers.

Methods

Surgeons from referral centers for the management of pelvic floor disorders and affiliated to the Italian Society of Colorectal Surgery provided data on the yearly volume of procedures for ODS from 2010 to 2019. Six common clinical scenarios of ODS were captured, including details on patient’s anal sphincter function and presence of rectocele and/or rectal intussusception. Perineal repair, ventral rectopexy (VRP), transanal repair (internal Delorme), stapled transanal rectal resection (STARR), Contour Transtar, and transvaginal repair were considered in each clinical scenario.

Results

Twenty-five centers were included providing data on 2943 surgical patients. Procedure volumes ranged from 10–20 (54%) to 21–50 (46%) per year across centers. The most performed techniques in patients with good sphincter function were transanal repair for isolated rectocele (243/716 [34%]), transanal repair for isolated rectal intussusception (287/677 [42%]) and VRP for combined abnormalities (464/976 [48%]). When considering poor sphincter function, these were perineal repair (112/194 [57.8%]) for isolated rectocele, and VRP for the other two scenarios (60/120 [50%] and 97/260 [37%], respectively). The use of STARR and Contour Transtar decreased over time in patients with impaired sphincter function.

Conclusions

The complexity of ODS treatment is confirmed by the variety of clinical scenarios that can occur and by the changing trend of surgical management over the last 10 years.

Evaluation of optical tracking and augmented reality for needle navigation in sacral nerve stimulation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) is a minimally invasive procedure where an electrode lead is implanted through the sacral foramina to stimulate the nerve modulating colonic and urinary functions. One of the most crucial steps in SNS procedures is the placement of the tined lead close to the sacral nerve. However, needle insertion is very challenging for surgeons. Several x-ray projections are required to interpret the needle position correctly. In many cases, multiple punctures are needed, causing an increase in surgical time and patient's discomfort and pain. In this work we propose and evaluate two different navigation systems to guide electrode placement in SNS surgeries designed to reduce surgical time, minimize patient discomfort and improve surgical outcomes.

METHODS

We developed, for the first alternative, an open-source navigation software to guide electrode placement by real-time needle tracking with an optical tracking system (OTS). In the second method, we present a smartphone-based AR application that displays virtual guidance elements directly on the affected area, using a 3D printed reference marker placed on the patient. This guidance facilitates needle insertion with a predefined trajectory. Both techniques were evaluated to determine which one obtained better results than the current surgical procedure. To compare the proposals with the clinical method, we developed an x-ray software tool that calculates a digitally reconstructed radiograph, simulating the fluoroscopy acquisitions during the procedure. Twelve physicians (inexperienced and experienced users) performed needle insertions through several specific targets to evaluate the alternative SNS guidance methods on a realistic patient-based phantom.

RESULTS

With each navigation solution, we observed that users took less average time to complete each insertion (36.83 s and 44.43 s for the OTS and AR methods, respectively) and needed fewer average punctures to reach the target (1.23 and 1.96 for the OTS and AR methods respectively) than following the standard clinical method (189.28 s and 3.65 punctures).

CONCLUSIONS

To conclude, we have shown two navigation alternatives that could improve surgical outcome by significantly reducing needle insertions, surgical time and patient's pain in SNS procedures. We believe that these solutions are feasible to train surgeons and even replace current SNS clinical procedures.

Non-drug therapies for the management of chronic constipation in adults: the CapaCiTY research programme including three RCTs

Background

Chronic constipation affects 1–2% of adults and significantly affects quality of life. Beyond the use of laxatives and other basic measures, there is uncertainty about management, including the value of specialist investigations, equipment-intensive therapies using biofeedback, transanal irrigation and surgery.

Objectives

(1) To determine whether or not standardised specialist-led habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback is more clinically effective than standardised specialist-led habit training alone, and whether or not outcomes of such specialist-led interventions are improved by stratification to habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback or habit training alone based on prior knowledge of anorectal and colonic pathophysiology using standardised radiophysiological investigations; (2) to compare the impact of transanal irrigation initiated with low-volume and high-volume systems on patient disease-specific quality of life; and (3) to determine the clinical efficacy of laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy compared with controls at short-term follow-up.

Design

The Chronic Constipation Treatment Pathway (CapaCiTY) research programme was a programme of national recruitment with a standardised methodological framework (i.e. eligibility, baseline phenotyping and standardised outcomes) for three randomised trials: a parallel three-group trial, permitting two randomised comparisons (CapaCiTY trial 1), a parallel two-group trial (CapaCiTY trial 2) and a stepped-wedge (individual-level) three-group trial (CapaCiTY trial 3).

Setting

Specialist hospital centres across England, with a mix of urban and rural referral bases.

Participants

The main inclusion criteria were as follows: age 18–70 years, participant self-reported problematic constipation, symptom onset > 6 months before recruitment, symptoms meeting the American College of Gastroenterology’s constipation definition and constipation that failed treatment to a minimum basic standard. The main exclusion criteria were secondary constipation and previous experience of study interventions.

Interventions

CapaCiTY trial 1: group 1 – standardised specialist-led habit training alone (n = 68); group 2 – standardised specialist-led habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback (n = 68); and group 3 – standardised radiophysiological investigations-guided treatment (n = 46) (allocation ratio 3 : 3 : 2, respectively). CapaCiTY trial 2: transanal irrigation initiated with low-volume (group 1, n = 30) or high-volume (group 2, n = 35) systems (allocation ratio 1 : 1). CapaCiTY trial 3: laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy performed immediately (n = 9) and after 12 weeks’ (n = 10) and after 24 weeks’ (n = 9) waiting time (allocation ratio 1 : 1 : 1, respectively).

Main outcome measures

The main outcome measures were standardised outcomes for all three trials. The primary clinical outcome was mean change in Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life score at the 6-month, 3-month or 24-week follow-up. The secondary clinical outcomes were a range of validated disease-specific and psychological scoring instrument scores. For cost-effectiveness, quality-adjusted life-year estimates were determined from individual participant-level cost data and EuroQol-5 Dimensions, five-level version, data. Participant experience was investigated through interviews and qualitative analysis.

Results

A total of 275 participants were recruited. Baseline phenotyping demonstrated high levels of symptom burden and psychological morbidity. CapaCiTY trial 1: all interventions (standardised specialist-led habit training alone, standardised specialist-led habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback and standardised radiophysiological investigations-guided habit training alone or habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback) led to similar reductions in the Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life score (approximately –0.8 points), with no statistically significant difference between habit training alone and habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback (–0.03 points, 95% confidence interval –0.33 to 0.27 points; p = 0.8445) or between standardised radiophysiological investigations and no standardised radiophysiological investigations (0.22 points, 95% confidence interval –0.11 to 0.55 points; p = 0.1871). Secondary outcomes reflected similar levels of benefit for all interventions. There was no evidence of greater cost-effectiveness of habit training plus pelvic floor retraining using computer-assisted direct visual biofeedback or stratification by standardised radiophysiological investigations compared with habit training alone (with the probability that habit training alone is cost-effective at a willingness-to-pay threshold of £30,000 per quality-adjusted life-year gain; p = 0.83). Participants reported mixed experiences and similar satisfaction in all groups in the qualitative interviews. CapaCiTY trial 2: at 3 months, there was a modest reduction in the Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life score, from a mean of 2.4 to 2.2 points (i.e. a reduction of 0.2 points), in the low-volume transanal irrigation group compared with a larger mean reduction of 0.6 points in the high-volume transanal irrigation group (difference –0.37 points, 95% confidence interval –0.89 to 0.15 points). The majority of participants preferred high-volume transanal irrigation, with substantial crossover to high-volume transanal irrigation during follow-up. Compared with low-volume transanal irrigation, high-volume transanal irrigation had similar costs (median difference –£8, 95% confidence interval –£240 to £221) and resulted in significantly higher quality of life (0.093 quality-adjusted life-years, 95% confidence interval 0.016 to 0.175 quality-adjusted life-years). CapaCiTY trial 3: laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy resulted in a substantial short-term mean reduction in the Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life score (–1.09 points, 95% confidence interval –1.76 to –0.41 points) and beneficial changes in all other outcomes; however, significant increases in cost (£5012, 95% confidence interval £4446 to £5322) resulted in only modest increases in quality of life (0.043 quality-adjusted life-years, 95% confidence interval –0.005 to 0.093 quality-adjusted life-years), with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of £115,512 per quality-adjusted life-year.

Conclusions

Excluding poor recruitment and underpowering of clinical effectiveness analyses, several themes emerge: (1) all interventions studied have beneficial effects on symptoms and disease-specific quality of life in the short term; (2) a simpler, cheaper approach to nurse-led behavioural interventions appears to be at least as clinically effective as and more cost-effective than more complex and invasive approaches (including prior investigation); (3) high-volume transanal irrigation is preferred by participants and has better clinical effectiveness than low-volume transanal irrigation systems; and (4) laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy in highly selected participants confers a very significant short-term reduction in symptoms, with low levels of harm but little effect on general quality of life.

Limitations

All three trials significantly under-recruited [CapaCiTY trial 1, n = 182 (target 394); CapaCiTY trial 2, n = 65 (target 300); and CapaCiTY trial 3, n = 28 (target 114)]. The numbers analysed were further limited by loss before primary outcome.

Trial registration

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN11791740, ISRCTN11093872 and ISRCTN11747152.

Funding

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Programme Grants for Applied Research programme and will be published in full in Programme Grants for Applied Research; Vol. 9, No. 14. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

The role of neuromodulation in chronic functional constipation: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Chronic functional constipation is a highly prevalent disorder in which, when conservative measures fail to relieve symptoms, surgical interventions are sometimes indicated. In recent years, neuromodulation for the treatment of functional constipation has gained interest but its role and effectiveness are still unclear. The purpose of this review is to provide a systematic overview on the current literature on the different modalities of neurostimulation and their effect on chronic functional constipation in adults as reported in the literature.

METHODS

A search in the literature for articles concerning the effect of different types of neuromodulation on constipation was performed in PubMed using extensive search terms for the different modalities of neuromodulation. Studies and trials were checked for eligibility. For all types of neuromodulation together, 27 articles were included.

RESULTS

17 studies were included on SNM (sacral nerve modulation). Although multiple studies show positive results on the effect of SNM in constipation, double-blind crossover RCT's (randomised controlled trials) showed no significant effect. 3 studies were included for tSNS (transcutaneous sacral nerve stimulation), 2 for PTNS (percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation) and 2 for TTNS (transcutaneous tibial nerve stimulation). Studies and trials on these modalities of neuromodulation reported ambiguous results on statistical significance of the effect. For transcutaneous IFC (interferential current therapy) 2 studies were included, which both reported a statistically significant effect on all outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The beneficial effect of neuromodulation in chronic functional constipation remains questionable. However, neuro-modulation might be worth considering in patients refractory to treatment before turning to more invasive measures. Future research should shed more light on the effects of neuromodulation in constipation.

Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Management of Chronic Constipation

With a worldwide prevalence of 15%, chronic constipation is one of the most frequent gastrointestinal diagnoses made in ambulatory medicine clinics, and is a common source cause for referrals to gastroenterologists and colorectal surgeons in the United States. Symptoms vary among patients; straining, incomplete evacuation, and a sense of anorectal blockage are just as important as decreased stool frequency. Chronic constipation is either a primary disorder (such as normal transit, slow transit, or defecatory disorders) or a secondary one (due to medications or, in rare cases, anatomic alterations). Colonic sensorimotor disturbances and pelvic floor dysfunction (such as defecatory disorders) are the most widely recognized pathogenic mechanisms. Guided by efficacy and cost, management of constipation should begin with dietary fiber supplementation and stimulant and/or osmotic laxatives, as appropriate, followed, if necessary, by intestinal secretagogues and/or prokinetic agents. Peripherally acting μ-opiate antagonists are another option for opioid-induced constipation. Anorectal tests to evaluate for defecatory disorders should be performed in patients who do not respond to over-the-counter agents. Colonic transit, followed if necessary with assessment of colonic motility with manometry and/or a barostat, can identify colonic dysmotility. Defecatory disorders often respond to biofeedback therapy. For specific patients, slow-transit constipation may necessitate a colectomy. No studies have compared inexpensive laxatives with newer drugs with different mechanisms. We review the mechanisms, evaluation, and management of chronic constipation. We discuss the importance of meticulous analyses of patient history and physical examination, advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic testing, guidance for individualized treatment, and management of medically refractory patients.

European society of neurogastroenterology and motility guidelines on functional constipation in adults

INTRODUCTION

Chronic constipation is a common disorder with a reported prevalence ranging from 3% to 27% in the general population. Several management strategies, including diagnostic tests, empiric treatments, and specific treatments, have been developed. Our aim was to develop European guidelines for the clinical management of constipation.

DESIGN

After a thorough review of the literature by experts in relevant fields, including gastroenterologists, surgeons, general practitioners, radiologists, and experts in gastrointestinal motility testing from various European countries, a Delphi consensus process was used to produce statements and practical algorithms for the management of chronic constipation.

KEY RESULTS

Seventy-three final statements were agreed upon after the Delphi process. The level of evidence for most statements was low or very low. A high level of evidence was agreed only for anorectal manometry as a comprehensive evaluation of anorectal function and for treatment with osmotic laxatives, especially polyethylene glycol, the prokinetic drug prucalopride, secretagogues, such as linaclotide and lubiprostone and PAMORAs for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation. However, the level of agreement between the authors was good for most statements (80% or more of the authors). The greatest disagreement was related to the surgical management of constipation.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

European guidelines on chronic constipation, with recommendations and algorithms, were developed by experts. Despite the high level of agreement between the different experts, the level of scientific evidence for most recommendations was low, highlighting the need for future research to increase the evidence and improve treatment outcomes in these patients.

An approach to the diagnosis and management of Rome IV functional disorders of chronic constipation

Introduction: Chronic constipation is highly prevalent, affecting between 10% and 15% of the population. The Rome IV criteria categorizes disorders of chronic constipation into four subtypes: (a) functional constipation, (b) irritable bowel syndrome with constipation, (c) opioid-induced constipation, and (d) functional defecation disorders, including inadequate defecatory propulsion and dyssynergic defecation. The initial management approach for these disorders is similar, focusing on diet, lifestyle and the use of standard over-the-counter laxatives. If unsuccessful, further therapy is tailored according to subtype.Areas covered: This review covers the definition, epidemiology, diagnostic criteria, investigations and management of the Rome IV disorders of chronic constipation.Expert opinion: By adopting a logical step-wise approach toward the diagnosis of chronic constipation and its individual subtypes, clinicians have the opportunity to tailor therapy accordingly and improve symptoms, quality of life, and patient satisfaction.

Sacral nerve stimulation in slow-transit constipation: effectiveness at 5-year follow-up

AIM

The aim of this study is to evaluate the short- and long-term efficacy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) for treating slow-transit constipation (STC).

METHOD

This is a retrospective cohort analysis of the efficacy of SNS in treating patients affected by STC, who previously failed to respond to conservative therapies. Only patients free of concomitant diseases were enrolled in our study. A temporary stimulation lead was initially implanted; patients with a > 50% symptom reduction were eventually deemed eligible for a permanent implant.

RESULTS

This study enrolled 25 patients who underwent a SNS test stimulation; 21 patients (13 women; median age 32 years) eventually got a permanent implant. The median preoperative Cleveland Clinic Constipation Score (CCCS) was 21 (16-25). Preoperative colorectal transit time recorded a median of 10 markers (7-19) retained in the colorectal tract. At 6-month postoperative follow-up, the total number of markers retained in the colorectal tract decreased to 3 (0-4). The CCCS score improved during the first postoperative year (P < 0.001), but progressively worsened over the longer term. The SF-36 questionnaire showed an improvement in all 8 scales measuring physical and psycho-emotional states; all parameters recorded into the bowel diary also improved. Overall, at 60-month follow up, the overall neuromodulator removal rate was 48%.

CONCLUSIONS

The SNS is a minimally invasive surgical procedure that we tested for treating STC. The short-term outcome was promisingly after 6 months; however, there was a declining trend beyond this interval. Thus, the long-term efficacy of SNS needs to be further assessed.

Testing a support programme for opioid reduction for people with chronic non-malignant pain: the I-WOTCH randomised controlled trial protocol

INTRODUCTION

Chronic non-malignant pain has a major impact on the well-being, mood and productivity of those affected. Opioids are increasingly prescribed to manage this type of pain, but with a risk of other disabling symptoms, when their effectiveness has been questioned. This trial is designed to implement and evaluate a patient-centred intervention targeting withdrawal of strong opioids in people with chronic pain.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A pragmatic, multicentre, randomised controlled trial will assess the clinical and cost-effectiveness of a group-based multicomponent intervention combined with individualised clinical facilitator led support for the management of chronic non-malignant pain against the control intervention (self-help booklet and relaxation compact disc). An embedded process evaluation will examine fidelity of delivery and investigate experiences of the intervention. The two primary outcomes are activities of daily living (measured by Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Pain Interference Short Form (8A)) and opioid use. The secondary outcomes are pain severity, quality of life, sleep quality, self-efficacy, adverse events and National Health Service (NHS) healthcare resource use. Participants are followed up at 4, 8 and 12 months, with a primary endpoint of 12 months. Between-group differences will indicate effectiveness; we are looking for a difference of 3.5 points on our pain interference outcome (scale 40 to 77). We will undertake an NHS perspective cost-effectiveness analysis using quality adjusted life years.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Full approval was given by Yorkshire & The Humber - South Yorkshire Research Ethics Committee on 13 September, 2016 (16/YH/0325). Appropriate local approvals were sought for each area in which recruitment was undertaken. The current protocol version is 1.6 date 19 December 2018. Publication of results in peer- reviewed journals will inform the scientific and clinical community. We will disseminate results to patient participants and study facilitators in a study newsletter as well as a lay summary of results on the study website.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN49470934; Pre-results.

A randomized double-blinded sham-controlled cross-over trial of tined-lead sacral nerve stimulation testing for chronic constipation

OBJECTIVES

Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) may provide long-term symptom relief to patients suffering from chronic constipation. Patients are currently selected for SNS using a 2-week peripheral nerve evaluation (PNE) comprising stimulation by temporary leads. However, only 40% of test responders receive long-term benefit from treatment meaning that healthcare costs per successfully treated patient are too high. The primary objective was to assess tined-lead testing to predict benefit from SNS for chronic constipation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A randomized double-blind sham-controlled cross-over design evaluated enhanced PNE (ePNE) using tined quadripolar electrode leads over 6 weeks. The design differentiated between patients with discriminate and indiscriminate responses to testing. A score improvement of 25% or more was considered to be a positive response within a stimulation period. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients showing a reduction of at least 0.5 in constipation symptom score at 6 months.

RESULTS

A total of 45 patients were randomized, of whom 29 (64.4%) were test-phase responders. Of these, 27 were implanted providing permanent SNS. During ePNE, seven (18%) were discriminate responders, 22 (56%) were indiscriminate responders and 10 (26%) were nonresponders. Six patients were withdrawn during the test phase because of infection or noncompliance. At 6 months, there was no significant difference in primary outcome between discriminate and indiscriminate responders (60 vs. 57%, P=0.76). The study was terminated prematurely because of a persistent infection rate of 10 (22%) during ePNE of which nine (20%) were severe.

CONCLUSION

ePNE is a poor predictor of treatment response at 6 months. This suggests a strong and persistent placebo response during both SNS PNE and treatment. An extended 6-week PNE poses a high risk of infection.

Sacral nerve stimulation for constipation: long-term outcomes

BACKGROUND

There has been some controversy regarding the efficacy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) for the treatment of chronic constipation, due to less positive outcomes and concerns about cost-effectiveness in the long term. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the long-term outcomes of SNS in patients with chronic constipation.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted on patients who had SNS for chronic constipation in 2008-2017 at our institution. Clinical factors, profile of constipation, physiology studies, and patient satisfaction with SNS therapy were investigated during a follow-up period up to 10 years after the implantation.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine patients [86% female, median age 49 years (range 17-86)] were tested for SNS, and 24 received implants after a positive test phase [median 47 days (range 21-56 days)]. There were 27 bilateral and 2 unilateral implants, in S3 or S4 depending on best response. Mean follow-up was 59 months. Efficacy was considered as a score > 5 (on a scale of 1-10) in general symptom improvement. Nine (37.9%) implanted patients had a satisfaction score > 5. In 6 cases (25%), patient satisfaction was higher than 9. Due to the small sample size, there were no statistically significant variables considered as predictors of response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results agree with current studies which describe around a 30% response of SNS for refractory constipation. However, there is a small group of patients highly satisfied with SNS therapy. More studies are needed to better understand this profile and optimize outcomes.

When all seems lost: management of refractory constipation-Surgery, rectal irrigation, percutaneous endoscopic colostomy, and more

While the pharmacological armamentarium for chronic constipation has expanded over the past few years, a substantial proportion of constipated patients do not respond to these medications. This review summarizes the pharmacological and behavioral options for managing constipation and details the management of refractory constipation. Refractory constipation is defined as an inadequate improvement in constipation symptoms evaluated with an objective scale despite adequate therapy (ie, pharmacological and/or behavioral) that is based on the underlying pathophysiology of constipation. Minimally invasive (ie, rectal irrigation and percutaneous endoscopic colostomy) and surgical therapies are used to manage refractory constipation. This review appraises these options, and in particular, percutaneous endoscopic colostomy, which as detailed by an article in this issue, is a less invasive option for managing refractory constipation than surgery. While these options benefit some patients, the evidence of the risk: benefit profile for these therapies is limited.