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Bhoopchand A, Brownfield B, Collister A, Dal Lago A, Edwards A, Everett R, Fréchette A, Oliveira YG, Hughes E, Mathewson KW, Mendolicchio P, Pawar J, Pȋslar M, Platonov A, Senter E, Singh S, Zacherl A, Zhang LM. Learning few-shot imitation as cultural transmission. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7536. [PMID: 38016945 PMCID: PMC10684502 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42875-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Cultural transmission is the domain-general social skill that allows agents to acquire and use information from each other in real-time with high fidelity and recall. It can be thought of as the process that perpetuates fit variants in cultural evolution. In humans, cultural evolution has led to the accumulation and refinement of skills, tools and knowledge across generations. We provide a method for generating cultural transmission in artificially intelligent agents, in the form of few-shot imitation. Our agents succeed at real-time imitation of a human in novel contexts without using any pre-collected human data. We identify a surprisingly simple set of ingredients sufficient for generating cultural transmission and develop an evaluation methodology for rigorously assessing it. This paves the way for cultural evolution to play an algorithmic role in the development of artificial general intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ashley Edwards
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | | | | | | | - Edward Hughes
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK.
| | | | | | - Julia Pawar
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | - Miruna Pȋslar
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | - Alex Platonov
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | - Evan Senter
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | - Sukhdeep Singh
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
| | | | - Lei M Zhang
- Google DeepMind, 6-8 Handyside Street, London, N1C 4UZ, UK
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2
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Aberbach-Goodman S, Mukamel R. Temporal hierarchy of observed goal-directed actions. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19701. [PMID: 37952024 PMCID: PMC10640622 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46917-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
During social interactions, we continuously integrate current and previous information over varying timescales to infer other people's action intentions. Motor cognition theories argue for a hierarchical organization of goal-directed actions based on temporal scales. Accordingly, transient motor primitives are represented at lower levels of the hierarchy, a combination of primitives building motor sequences at subordinate levels, and more stable overarching action goals at superordinate levels. A neural topography of hierarchal timescales for information accumulation was previously shown in the visual and auditory domains. However, whether such a temporal hierarchy can also account for observed goal-directed action representations in motor pathways remains to be determined. Thus, the current study examined the neural architecture underlying the processing of observed goal-directed actions using inter-subject correlation (ISC) of fMRI activity. Observers (n = 24) viewed sequential hand movements presented in their intact order or piecewise scrambled at three timescales pertaining to goal-directed action evolution (Primitives: ± 1.5 s, Sub-Goals: ± 4 s, and High-Goals: ± 10 s). The results revealed differential intrinsic temporal capacities for integrating goal-directed action information across brain areas engaged in action observation. Longer timescales (> ± 10 s) were found in the posterior parietal and dorsal premotor compared to the ventral premotor (± 4 s) and anterior parietal (± 1.5 s) cortex. Moreover, our results revealed a hemispheric bias with more extended timescales in the right MT+, primary somatosensory, and early visual cortices compared to their homotopic regions in the left hemisphere. Our findings corroborate a hierarchical neural mapping of observed actions based on temporal scales of goals and provide further support for a ubiquitous time-dependent neural organization of information processing across multiple modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahar Aberbach-Goodman
- Sagol School of Neuroscience and School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Roy Mukamel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience and School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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3
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Blankenship TL, Kibbe MM. "Plan chunking" expands 3-year-olds' ability to complete multiple-step plans. Child Dev 2023; 94:1330-1339. [PMID: 37092570 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
The ability to use knowledge to guide the completion of goals is a critical cognitive skill, but 3-year-olds struggle to complete goals that require multiple steps. This study asked whether 3-year-olds could benefit from "plan chunking" to complete multistep goals. Thirty-two U.S. children (range = 35.75-46.59 months; 18 girls; 9 white, 3 mixed race, 20 unknown; tested between July 2020 and April 2021) were asked to complete "treasure maps," retrieving four colored map pieces by pressing specific buttons on a "rainbow box." Children completed more of the four-step sequence correctly when the steps were presented in a way that encouraged chunking the steps into pairs. These findings suggest a potential mechanism supporting memory-guided planning abilities in early childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa M Kibbe
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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4
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Subiaul F. Varieties of social learning in children: Characterizing the development of imitation, goal emulation and affordance learning within subjects and tasks. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2023.101326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
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5
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Lin LY, Chi IJ, Sung YS. Mediating effect of sequential memory on the relationship between visual-motor integration and self-care performance in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Front Psychol 2022; 13:988493. [PMID: 36275205 PMCID: PMC9583898 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.988493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectiveVisual perception is a skill that contributes to the performance of self-care and important development tasks in early childhood. The relationship between self-care and visual perception is especially significant for young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), who have been described as visual learners. However, this relationship is not clearly understood among young children with ASD. We investigated the role of motor-free visual perception on the relationship between self-care and visual-motor integration in young children with ASD.MethodsA sample of 66 children with ASD aged 48 to 83 months were recruited. Measurements included the Assessment of Motor and Process Skills, the Developmental Test of Visual Perception—Third Edition, and Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills—Third Edition.ResultsThe results indicated that self-care performance had significant positive correlations with visual-motor integration, visual discrimination, visual memory, visual spatial relationships, and visual sequential memory. Of these, visual sequential memory and visual spatial relationships were the main factors related to self-care performance. Sequential memory was a mediator of the relationship between visual-motor integration and self-care performance.ConclusionThis study establishes a deeper understanding of self-care and motor-free visual perception among young children with ASD. Understanding the relationship between visual perception and self-care in young children with ASD may aid professionals in providing self-care interventions for this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Yi Lin
- Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Ling-Yi Lin,
| | - I-Jou Chi
- Institute of Brain Science, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Shan Sung
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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6
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Sagar M, Henderson AME, Takac M, Morrison S, Knott A, Moser A, Yeh WT, Pages N, Jawed K. Deconstructing and reconstructing turn-taking in caregiver-infant interactions: a platform for embodied models of early cooperation. J R Soc N Z 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03036758.2022.2098781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Sagar
- Soul Machines Ltd., Auckland, New Zealand
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Martin Takac
- Soul Machines Ltd., Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Applied Informatics, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Samara Morrison
- Soul Machines Ltd., Auckland, New Zealand
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alistair Knott
- Soul Machines Ltd., Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Computer Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Alecia Moser
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Wan-Ting Yeh
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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7
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White PA. The extended present: an informational context for perception. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 220:103403. [PMID: 34454251 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Several previous authors have proposed a kind of specious or subjective present moment that covers a few seconds of recent information. This article proposes a new hypothesis about the subjective present, renamed the extended present, defined not in terms of time covered but as a thematically connected information structure held in working memory and in transiently accessible form in long-term memory. The three key features of the extended present are that information in it is thematically connected, both internally and to current attended perceptual input, it is organised in a hierarchical structure, and all information in it is marked with temporal information, specifically ordinal and duration information. Temporal boundaries to the information structure are determined by hierarchical structure processing and by limits on processing and storage capacity. Supporting evidence for the importance of hierarchical structure analysis is found in the domains of music perception, speech and language processing, perception and production of goal-directed action, and exact arithmetical calculation. Temporal information marking is also discussed and a possible mechanism for representing ordinal and duration information on the time scale of the extended present is proposed. It is hypothesised that the extended present functions primarily as an informational context for making sense of current perceptual input, and as an enabler for perception and generation of complex structures and operations in language, action, music, exact calculation, and other domains.
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8
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Yanaoka K, Saito S. The Development of Learning, Performing, and Controlling Repeated Sequential Actions in Young Children. Top Cogn Sci 2021; 14:241-257. [PMID: 34125991 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Our daily lives are composed of several sequential actions that we perform routinely, such as making breakfast, taking a train, and changing clothes. Previous research has demonstrated that a routine system plays a role in performing and controlling repeated sequential actions in familiar situations, and a top-down control system involves the control of the routine system in novel situations. Specifically, most developmental studies have focused on the top-down control system (e.g., executive functions) as a factor enabling the control of goal-directed actions in novel situations. Yet, it has not been thoroughly examined how young children learn, perform, and control repeated sequential actions in familiar contexts. In this review, based on recent computational accounts for adults, we highlight two critical aspects of the routine system from a developmental perspective: (1) automatic flexible changes of contextual representations, which enables humans to select context-dependent actions appropriately; and (2) detection of deviant situations, which signals the need for control to avoid errors. In addition, we propose the developmental mechanism underlying the routine system and its potential driving factors such as statistical regularities and executive functions. Finally, we suggest that an investigation into the interplay between routine and executive functions can form foundations for understanding learning, performing, and controlling repeated sequential actions in young children and discuss future directions in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaichi Yanaoka
- Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
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9
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Taniguchi Y, Sanefuji W. Irrelevant actions, goal demotion and explicit instruction: A study of overimitation. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Taniguchi
- Graduate School of Human‐Environment Studies Kyushu University Fukuoka Japan
| | - Wakako Sanefuji
- Faculty of Human‐Environment Studies Kyushu University Fukuoka Japan
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10
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Schröer L, Cooper RP, Mareschal D. Science with Duplo: Multilevel goal management in preschoolers' toy house constructions. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 206:105067. [PMID: 33610884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.105067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Executing goal-directed action sequences is fundamental to our behavior. Planning and controlling these action sequences improves greatly over the preschool years. In this study, we examined preschoolers' ability to plan action sequences. A total of 69 3- to 5-year-olds were assessed on an action sequence planning task with a hierarchical goal structure and on several executive function tasks. Planning abilities improved with age. Improvements in inhibition were related to avoidance of actions irrelevant to the goal hierarchy. Updating skill appears to be associated with executing actions relevant to different subgoals. Using optical motion capture, we showed that children who followed the subgoals displayed less movement with their nonreaching hand within a subgoal. This effect was enhanced in children with better inhibitory skills, suggesting that such skills allow greater focus on executing the current subgoal. Thus, we provide evidence that structuring of subgoals in action sequence planning emerges during the preschool years and that improvements in performance in action sequence planning are related to executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne Schröer
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK.
| | - Richard P Cooper
- Centre for Cognition, Computation and Modelling, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Denis Mareschal
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK; Centre for Cognition, Computation and Modelling, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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11
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Yanaoka K, Saito S. Contribution of Executive Functions to Learning Sequential Actions in Young Children. Child Dev 2020; 92:e581-e598. [PMID: 33368160 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study examined whether executive functions impact how flexibly children represent task context in performing repeated sequential actions. Japanese children in Experiments 1 (N = 52; 3-6 years) and 2 (N = 50, 4-6 years) performed sequential actions repeatedly; one group received reminders. Experiment 1 indicated that reminders promote flexible changes in contextual representations. Experiment 2 observed such effects in younger children and showed executive functions were associated with the flexible representation of task context. Reminders did not perfectly compensate for the role of executive functions but wiped out individual differences in executive functions that contribute to children's acquisition of routines. Therefore, setting goals before context-dependent actions is necessary, but not sufficient, to modulate contextual representations in routines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaichi Yanaoka
- The University of Tokyo.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
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12
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Wang Z, Fong FTK, Meltzoff AN. Enhancing same-gender imitation by highlighting gender norms in Chinese pre-school children. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 39:133-152. [PMID: 33095503 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Children selectively imitate in-group over outgroup individuals under certain experimental conditions. We investigated whether this bias applies to gender in-groups in China. Three- and five-year-olds were shown how to operate novel objects by same-gender and opposite-gender models. Results indicate that the combination of verbally highlighting the gender identity of the model (e.g., 'I am a girl') and making gender norms explicit (e.g., 'girls play this way') significantly enhances high-fidelity imitation. This 'double social effect' was more robust in 5-year-olds than 3-year-olds. Our results underscore how language about gender and the norms for gender-based groups influence behavioural imitation. The pattern of findings enhances our knowledge about pre-schoolers' social learning and imitation as well as the powerful influence of language and group norms on children's voluntary actions and learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidan Wang
- School of Education Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Frankie T K Fong
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrew N Meltzoff
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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13
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The Link Between Adaptive Memory and Cultural Attraction: New Insights for Evolutionary Ethnobiology. Evol Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-020-09516-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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14
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Renner E, Patterson EM, Subiaul F. Specialization in the vicarious learning of novel arbitrary sequences in humans but not orangutans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190442. [PMID: 32594877 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence learning underlies many uniquely human behaviours, from complex tool use to language and ritual. To understand whether this fundamental cognitive feature is uniquely derived in humans requires a comparative approach. We propose that the vicarious (but not individual) learning of novel arbitrary sequences represents a human cognitive specialization. To test this hypothesis, we compared the abilities of human children aged 3-5 years and orangutans to learn different types of arbitrary sequences (item-based and spatial-based). Sequences could be learned individually (by trial and error) or vicariously from a human (social) demonstrator or a computer (ghost control). We found that both children and orangutans recalled both types of sequence following trial-and-error learning; older children also learned both types of sequence following social and ghost demonstrations. Orangutans' success individually learning arbitrary sequences shows that their failure to do so in some vicarious learning conditions is not owing to general representational problems. These results provide new insights into some of the most persistent discontinuities observed between humans and other great apes in terms of complex tool use, language and ritual, all of which involve the cultural learning of novel arbitrary sequences. This article is part of the theme issue 'Ritual renaissance: new insights into the most human of behaviours'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Renner
- Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK.,Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, and.,Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Francys Subiaul
- Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, and.,Department of Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.,Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
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15
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Howard LH, Riggins T, Woodward AL. Learning From Others: The Effects of Agency on Event Memory in Young Children. Child Dev 2020; 91:1317-1335. [PMID: 31400001 PMCID: PMC7326290 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the influence of social context on children's event memory. Across four studies, we examined whether learning that could occur in the absence of a person was more robust when a person was present. Three-year-old children (N = 125) viewed sequential events that either included or excluded an acting agent. In Experiment 1, children who viewed an agent recalled more than children who did not. Experiments 2a and 2b utilized an eye tracker to demonstrate this effect was not due to differences in attention. Experiment 3 used a combined behavioral and event-related potential paradigm to show that condition effects were present in memory-related components. These converging results indicate a particular role for social knowledge in supporting memory for events.
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16
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Melzel S, Paulus M. The development of the prediction of complex actions in early childhood. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2020.1773786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Melzel
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Paulus
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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17
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Wang Z, Meltzoff AN. Imitation in Chinese Preschool Children: Influence of Prior Self-Experience and Pedagogical Cues on the Imitation of Novel Acts in a Non-Western Culture. Front Psychol 2020; 11:662. [PMID: 32351426 PMCID: PMC7174596 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Both prior experience and pedagogical cues modulate Western children’s imitation. However, these factors have not been systematically explored together within a single study. This paper explored how these factors individually and together influence imitation using 4-year-old children born and reared in mainland China (N = 210)—a country that contains almost one-fifth of the world’s population, and in which childhood imitation is under-studied using experimental methodology. The behavior of children in this culture is of special interest to theory because traditional East Asian culture places high value on conformity and fitting in with the group. Thus, high-fidelity imitation is emphasized in the local culture. This value, practice, or norm may be recognized by children at a young age and influence their imitative performance. In this study, we crossed prior self-experience and pedagogical cues, yielding four demonstration groups in addition to a control group. This design allowed us to investigate the degree to which Chinese preschoolers’ imitation was modulated by the two experimental factors. High-fidelity imitation was significantly modulated by prior self-experience but not by pedagogical cues, as measured by the number of novel acts imitated and also the serial order of these acts. This study (i) expands our understanding of factors that modulate imitation of novel behaviors in preschoolers and (ii) contributes to efforts to broaden research beyond Western societies to enrich our theories, particularly regarding social learning and imitation. Imitation is a key mechanism in the acquisition of culturally appropriate behaviors, mannerisms, and norms but who, what, and when children imitate is malleable. This study points to both cross-cultural invariants and variations to provide a fuller picture of the scope and functions of childhood imitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidan Wang
- School of Education Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Andrew N Meltzoff
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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18
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Abstract
Events make up much of our lived experience, and the perceptual mechanisms that represent events in experience have pervasive effects on action control, language use, and remembering. Event representations in both perception and memory have rich internal structure and connections one to another, and both are heavily informed by knowledge accumulated from previous experiences. Event perception and memory have been identified with specific computational and neural mechanisms, which show protracted development in childhood and are affected by language use, expertise, and brain disorders and injuries. Current theoretical approaches focus on the mechanisms by which events are segmented from ongoing experience, and emphasize the common coding of events for perception, action, and memory. Abetted by developments in eye-tracking, neuroimaging, and computer science, research on event perception and memory is moving from small-scale laboratory analogs to the complexity of events in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Zacks
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA;
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19
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March J, Rigby Dames B, Caldwell C, Doherty M, Rafetseder E. The role of context in "over-imitation": Evidence of movement-based goal inference in young children. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 190:104713. [PMID: 31726242 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Children, as well as adults, often imitate causally unnecessary actions. Three experiments investigated whether such "over-imitation" occurs because these actions are interpreted as performed for the movement's sake (i.e., having a "movement-based" goal). Experiment 1 (N = 30, 2-5-year-olds) replicated previous findings; children imitated actions with no goal more precisely than actions with external goals. Experiment 2 (N = 58, 2-5-year-olds) confirmed that the difference between these conditions was not due to the absence/presence of external goals but rather was also found when actions brought about external goals in a clearly inefficient way. Experiment 3 (N = 36, 3-5-year-olds) controlled for the possibility that imitation fidelity was affected by the number of actions and objects present during the demonstration and confirmed that identical actions were imitated more precisely when they appeared to be more inefficient toward an external goal. Our findings suggest that movement-based goal inference encourages over-imitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua March
- School of Social Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK.
| | - Brier Rigby Dames
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Christine Caldwell
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Martin Doherty
- School of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Eva Rafetseder
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren H. Howard
- Department of Psychology, Franklin & Marshall College, Lancaster, PA, 17603, USA
| | - Amanda L. Woodward
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
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21
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Ratner HH, Foley MA, Lesnick CS. Kindergarten children's event memory: the role of action prediction in remembering. Cogn Process 2019; 20:227-241. [PMID: 30739253 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-018-00900-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In two studies, kindergarteners participated in a series of staged events immediately preceded by pre-event interactions that were designed to identify factors relevant to improving recall. The events were based on preschool science-related activities and the experimental pre-event involved predicting actions to occur during a target event, manipulating types of cues available to support these predictive inferences. Action prediction did improve free recall, and effects may have influenced attentional processes evoked by actions generated and enacted. Although children effectively used outcome cues to predict actions, a one-to-one relation between pre-event action prediction patterns and recall did not occur. In combination with other findings, this result may suggest that increased attention during the target event may have supported the pre-event effect rather than integration of information between the pre-event and target event. Early childhood teachers engaging children in science activities should provide explicit cues to enhance usefulness of preparatory activities for recall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Horn Ratner
- Merrill Palmer Skillman Institute, Wayne State University, 71 E. Ferry Avenue, Detroit, MI, 48207, USA.
| | - Mary Ann Foley
- Skidmore College, 50 Sherwood Trail, Saratoga Springs, NY, 12866, USA
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22
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Prabhakar J, Ghetti S. Connecting the Dots Between Past and Future: Constraints in Episodic Future Thinking in Early Childhood. Child Dev 2019; 91:e315-e330. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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Tompkins V, Farrar MJ, Montgomery DE. Speaking Your Mind: Language and Narrative in Young Children's Theory of Mind Development. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2019; 56:109-140. [PMID: 30846045 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Research consistently finds that language and theory of mind are interrelated. The content and qualities of language that specifically predict theory of mind remain under investigation and the question of why language might impact theory of mind development is open. In this chapter we analyze and highlight current findings and theory addressing theory of mind and language. The principal focus is upon typically developing children between ages 2 and 5, a period characterized by extensive development in language and social understanding. We propose that the study of young children's narrative development can inform how and why language and theory of mind are connected. False belief understanding and narrative comprehension share many similarities and this association provides a promising avenue for future work.
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24
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Wang Y, Gennari SP. How language and event recall can shape memory for time. Cogn Psychol 2018; 108:1-21. [PMID: 30453099 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
How do we represent the duration of past events that we have conceptualized through language? Prior research suggests that memory for duration depends on the segmental structure perceived at encoding. However, it remains unclear why duration memory displays characteristic distortions and whether language-mediated encoding can further distort duration memory. Here we examine these questions and specifically ask whether the amount of event information recalled relative to the stimulus duration explains temporal distortions. In several studies, participants first studied animated stimuli described by phrases implying either fast or slow motion (e.g., a mule vs car going up a road). They then mentally reproduced the stimuli from memory (as if replaying them in their minds) and verbally recalled them. We manipulated the amount of stimulus study and the type of recall cue (visual vs linguistic) to assess the role of language and information recalled on the length of mental reproductions. Results indicated that the density of the information recalled (number of details recalled per second) explained temporal distortions: higher density events were lengthened and lower density events were shortened. Moreover, language additionally lengthened or shortened duration reproductions when phrases cued the task, suggesting that episodic details and verbal conceptual features were combined during recollection rather than encoding. These results suggest that the density of the details recalled and language-mediated recollection shape memory for event duration. We argue that temporal memory distortions stem from event encoding and retrieval mechanisms. Implications of these findings for theories of time, memory and language are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqi Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of York, United Kingdom
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25
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Levine D, Buchsbaum D, Hirsh‐Pasek K, Golinkoff RM. Finding events in a continuous world: A developmental account. Dev Psychobiol 2018; 61:376-389. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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26
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Developing control over the execution of scripts: The role of maintained hierarchical goal representations. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 163:87-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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27
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Abstract
Research on event cognition is rapidly developing and is revealing fundamental aspects of human cognition. In this paper, we review recent and current work that is driving this field forward. We first outline the Event Horizon Model, which broadly describes the impact of event boundaries on cognition and memory. Then, we address recent work on event segmentation, the role of event cognition in working memory and long-term memory, including event model updating, and long term retention. Throughout we also consider how event cognition varies across individuals and groups of people and consider the neural mechanisms involved.
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