China's Collective Forest Tenure Reform and the Future of the Giant Panda

Socioeconomic development shows positive links to the conservation efficiency of China's protected area network

While the protected area (PA) covers >15% of the planet's terrestrial land area and continues to expand, factors determining its effectiveness in conserving endangered species are being debated. We investigated the links between direct anthropogenic pressures, socioeconomic settings, and the coverage of vertebrate taxa by China's PA network, and indicated that high socioeconomic status and low levels of human pressure correlate with high species coverage, with threatened mammals more effectively conserved than reptiles or amphibians. Positive links between conservation outcomes and socioeconomic progress appear linked to local livelihood improvements triggering positive perceptions of local PAs-aided further by ecological compensation and tourism schemes introduced in wealthy areas and reinforced by continued positive conservation outcomes. Socioeconomic development of China's less developed regions might assist regional PA efficiency and achievement of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, while also addressing potential shortcomings from an insufficient past focus on socioeconomic impacts for biodiversity conservation.

A review of the habitat restoration of giant pandas from 2012 to 2021: Research topics and advances

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a flagship species in nature conservation. Habitat degradation and fragmentation threaten the sustainable survival of giant pandas, and thus degraded habitats need to be restored and fragmented habitats require connection. In the past ten years, some new studies have emerged on the habitat restoration of giant pandas, yet no specialized reviews of this topic have been published. This paper reviews the habitat restoration of giant pandas based on related articles published between 2012 and 2021. Three principal research topics are identified and summarized: restoration effect, restoration requirements, and restoration considerations. The review demonstrates that some measures, such as protection projects and policies, controlling human disturbances and impacts, and natural recovery, contribute to the habitat restoration of giant pandas. Many issues related to artificial forests need to be addressed to clarify their role in habitat restoration. Many habitats with clear locations and types need restoration, especially those that are disturbed or threatened by human activities and some that are disturbed by natural disturbances such as earthquakes. To integrate consideration factors, a reference habitat should be established and well described. In addition, social and economic factors should not be ignored. More targeted studies of the habitat restoration of giant pandas are urgently needed, including theoretical, cross-scale, interdisciplinary, multi-factor, and long-term monitoring studies. This review provides a reference for future research work and a source of information for future restoration of giant panda habitat.

Effects of aquaculture on the maintenance of waterbird populations

The global aquaculture industry has expanded rapidly and is increasingly important for maintaining food security while also providing alternative artificial habitats for many waterbirds. Clarifying how waterbirds use aquafarms and how aquafarm use affects waterbird population maintenance can be useful for improving management of the artificial landscape that can also provide waterbird habitat. Here, we investigated aquafarm use by waterbirds in China, the world's largest producer of aquaculture products, supported by literature review and questionnaire survey. We used Bayesian phylogenetic generalized linear mixed models to analyze the relationship between the degree of aquafarm use and population trends of waterbirds. The results showed that 69% of waterbird species in China have been recorded at aquafarms. Approximately one-quarter of all waterbird species and about the same proportion of threatened species were found to forage at aquafarms, consuming either cultured aquatic products or other food types. In general, species with a high degree of aquafarm use were unlikely to exhibit a population decline over the past two decades, when rapid loss of natural habitats occurred in China. This relationship was not detected in threatened species, despite there being no significant difference in the degree of aquafarm use between threatened and non-threatened species. Our study suggests that the large and expanding aquaculture industry is important for maintaining waterbird populations in China. However, aquafarms are not a replacement for natural habitats, because threatened species benefit less from aquafarm use. Given that aquafarms often come at the expense of natural wetlands, the degree to which aquafarms compensate for natural habitat loss probably depends on the quality of aquafarm habitat. We recommend an integrated ecological and economic analysis for formulating management policies that help conserve wildlife within the constraints and opportunities associated with maintaining human livelihoods. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Spatial models of giant pandas under current and future conditions reveal extinction risks

In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, demographic processes-the vagaries of births, deaths and sex ratio fluctuations-pose substantial threats to wild giant panda populations. Additionally, climate change and plans for the Giant Panda National Park may influence (in opposing directions) the extinction risk for wild giant pandas. The Fourth National Giant Panda Census showed pandas living in 33 isolated populations. An estimated 259 animals live in 25 of these groups, ~14% of the total population. We used individual-based models to simulate time series of these small populations for 100 years. We analysed the spatial pattern of their risk of extinction under current conditions and multiple climate change models. Furthermore, we consider the impact of the proposed Giant Panda National Park. Results showed that 15 populations face a risk >90%, and for 3 other populations the risk is >50%. Of the 15 most at-risk populations, national parks can protect only 3. Under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 climate change scenario, the 33 populations will probably further divide into 56 populations. Some 41 of them will face a risk >50% and 35 face a risk >90%. Although national parks will probably connect some fragmented habitats, 26 populations will be outside national park planning. Our study gives practical advice for conservation policies and management and has implications for the conservation of other species in the world that live in isolated, fragmented habitats.

A global assessment of the impact of individual protected areas on preventing forest loss

Globally, the number and extent of terrestrial protected areas (PAs) are expanding rapidly. Nonetheless, their impacts on preventing forest loss and the factors influencing the impacts are not well understood, despite the critical roles of forests in biodiversity conservation, provision of ecosystem services, and achievement of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. To address this important knowledge gap, we quantified the impacts of 54,792 PAs worldwide on preventing forest loss from 2000 to 2015, and assessed important landscape and management factors affecting the impacts of PAs. Although the majority (71.4%) of the PAs contributed to preventing forest loss, only 30.5% of forest loss in the PAs have been prevented. PAs with higher rates of forest loss in their surrounding regions, located at lower elevations, within a few hours of travel from the nearest city, with higher agricultural productivity, and permission for fewer human uses were better able to prevent forest loss. Impacts on preventing forest loss were similar regardless of whether the PAs were privately or publicly owned. Our findings highlight the potential benefits of strict protections, involving private entities in the establishment of PAs, and situating PAs in areas exposed to high risks of forest loss to enhance the capacity to combat global forest loss.

A review of the impacts of four identified major human disturbances on the habitat and habitat use of wild giant pandas from 2015 to 2020

Human disturbance poses a serious threat to the survival of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), but few systematic and specialized reviews on the impacts of human disturbance on pandas and their habitats have been published. After the fourth giant panda survey (2011-2014), some new studies and important findings have emerged. To update the understanding of the impacts of human disturbance, research on the impacts of major human disturbances on the habitat and habitat use of wild giant pandas from 2015 to 2020 was reviewed based on 33 publications (including three books and 30 articles). The major human disturbances in panda habitat included livestock grazing, roads, herb collection, and logging. Livestock affects panda habitat by occupying, disturbing, and defecating in it, and the time and intensity of habitat use by horses are greater than the time and intensity at which pandas use their habitats. Roads affect nearby habitats by disturbing the vegetation and causing pollution, and the effect of roads extends far beyond the roads themselves and varies with road type. The impacts of logging on the forest structure and bamboo in panda habitat are long-term. Pandas avoid habitats disturbed by livestock grazing, roads, and logging. The impacts of herb collection are not known, because they have received little attention. Findings suggested a need for further research on human disturbance to giant pandas, focusing on comprehensive evaluations of the interactions between different disturbances.

Effects of China’s Collective Forestland Tenure Reform Policies on Forest Product Firm Values

China’s collective forestland tenure reform has dramatically affected the business environment of domestic forest product firms. This study examines the impact of the said reform on the expected values of these firms, via the reaction of investors (as seen on the stock markets) towards the issuance of related policies. Based on signaling theory and the assumption that the Chinese stock markets are efficient in terms of work form, this study adopts an event study method and examines five policies during the 2003–2009 period. The numbers of forest product firms used in the examinations herein differ among the policies and range from 21 to 29. This study found that the policies have differentially affected the expected values of forest product firms and that the impact on firms lacking forestland holdings is generally more significant than that on firms that hold forestland. The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the effect of collective forestland tenure reform on the value of forest product firms; they also have implications on forest product firms as they work to adapt to the reform.

Gap Analysis of Giant Panda Conservation as an Example for Planning China's National Park System

Protected areas have been the cornerstone for conservation globally [1], but gaps still exist in preserving biodiversity [2]. Meanwhile, areas designated as protected have overlaps between designations and might vary in their management [3, 4]. All three phenomena-coverage gaps, overlapping designations, and disparities in management-are present in China [5, 6]. China plans to establish a national park system for the first time, aiming to reform the existing protected-area system [7-9]. However, there has been no quantitative spatial analysis that can aid the planning of national parks. This study shows how an improved conservation gap analysis can inform the construction of new national parks. Taking the proposed Giant Panda National Park as an example, we analyzed the relationship between panda habitat and the existing protected areas, considering not only de jure designated coverage but also de facto levels of two types of potentially harmful activities (timber extraction and human disturbance). We find that, first, there are coverage gaps in the four mountains comprising the potential national park, and existing protected areas have overlaps between designations. Second, current protected areas have gaps and disparities in terms of restrictions on timber extraction and human disturbance. Third, overlapped designations and less restrictive management appear to have adverse effects on panda protection. On the basis of these results, we propose integrated management under a single national park administration, focusing on the key gaps, which we identify. This study can serve as a reference for the establishment of other national parks in China and the world.

Assessing the Effectiveness of China's Panda Protection System

Protected areas form the backbone of biodiversity conservation, yet their effectiveness is often not known nor even evaluated [1-3]. China-best known for its record of ecological degradation in the face of rapidly increasing gross domestic product and resource consumption [4]-has in recent years enacted a series of policies and programs to conserve its natural resources. Chief among them is an ambitious protected area system covering 17% of its terrestrial land mass [4, 5]. An important early impetus for the establishment of this reserve system was the protection of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) [5-8]. Using data from two previous large-scale surveys [9, 10] separated by a decade, and including over 50,000 habitat plots, we examined the panda population and habitat trends inside and outside reserves. Despite ambitious ecocompensation programs in panda habitat outside reserves [11-13], the protection provided by reserves reduced most classes of human disturbance compared to outside reserves, and most disturbances decreased through time more strongly inside than outside reserves. Reserves also contained more and increasing suitable panda than found outside reserves [14, 15]. Comparing reserve performance, reserves with increasing older forests and bamboo correlated with increasing panda populations. Together these findings indicate that China's panda reserves have been effective and that they are functioning better over time, conserving more and better habitats and containing more pandas. While China's protected area system still has much room for improvement [4, 5], including to support pandas [16], these findings underscore the progress made in China's nascent environmental movement.

Comprehensive Breeding Techniques for the Giant Panda

The dramatic growth of the captive giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) population exemplifies how the application of scientific findings to animal care and reproductive management can improve conservation breeding outcomes. Detailed behavioral studies of giant panda estrus, pregnancy and cub rearing have demonstrated the importance of husbandry management that supports natural reproductive behavior to enhance breeding success. Natural breeding has been valuably augmented by the development of assisted reproductive techniques founded through detailed studies of the reproductive physiology of the giant panda and outlining fundamental information about reproductive seasonality, male fertility and characterization of the estrous cycle. The resultant holistic understanding of giant panda reproduction has improved reproductive success in the captive population to such an extent that it is now self-sustaining and provides surplus animals for reintroduction. Despite these significant advances, there are knowledge gaps and remaining challenges to be addressed. Pregnancy detection remains the single biggest challenge when determining if natural mating or assisted breeding have been successful. Because pregnancy can only be determined in the few weeks prior to parturition, there are gaps in understanding and detecting delayed implantation and early embryonic loss. Additionally, dynamic management practices and standard of care for reproductive assistance needs to be developed. Only large breeding centers in China have the ability to promote normal reproductive behaviors and allow mate choice for the giant panda. These challenges need to be addressed in the near future in order to maintain a self-sustaining, genetically diverse and behaviorally competent captive population. This chapter documents the development of successful giant panda managed breeding programs by focusing on three key areas, (1) the development of science-driven reproductive techniques to improve fecundity in a species where the mating system was poorly understood, (2) how targeted research and adaptive management of social settings surrounding estrus and breeding improved reproductive success, and (3) insights and solutions to challenges faced across the program's history with future directions for research.

Effects of national forest-management regimes on unprotected forests of the Himalaya

Globally, deforestation continues, and although protected areas effectively protect forests, the majority of forests are not in protected areas. Thus, how effective are different management regimes to avoid deforestation in non-protected forests? We sought to assess the effectiveness of different national forest-management regimes to safeguard forests outside protected areas. We compared 2000-2014 deforestation rates across the temperate forests of 5 countries in the Himalaya (Bhutan, Nepal, China, India, and Myanmar) of which 13% are protected. We reviewed the literature to characterize forest management regimes in each country and conducted a quasi-experimental analysis to measure differences in deforestation of unprotected forests among countries and states in India. Countries varied in both overarching forest-management goals and specific tenure arrangements and policies for unprotected forests, from policies emphasizing economic development to those focused on forest conservation. Deforestation rates differed up to 1.4% between countries, even after accounting for local determinants of deforestation, such as human population density, market access, and topography. The highest deforestation rates were associated with forest policies aimed at maximizing profits and unstable tenure regimes. Deforestation in national forest-management regimes that emphasized conservation and community management were relatively low. In India results were consistent with the national-level results. We interpreted our results in the context of the broader literature on decentralized, community-based natural resource management, and our findings emphasize that the type and quality of community-based forestry programs and the degree to which they are oriented toward sustainable use rather than economic development are important for forest protection. Our cross-national results are consistent with results from site- and regional-scale studies that show forest-management regimes that ensure stable land tenure and integrate local-livelihood benefits with forest conservation result in the best forest outcomes.

Quantifying the evidence for co-benefits between species conservation and climate change mitigation in giant panda habitats

Conservationists strive for practical, cost-effective management solutions to forest-based species conservation and climate change mitigation. However, this is compromised by insufficient information about the effectiveness of protected areas in increasing carbon storage, and the co-benefits of species and carbon conservation remain poorly understood. Here, we present the first rigorous quantitative assessment of the roles of giant panda nature reserves (NRs) in carbon sequestration, and explore the co-benefits of habitat conservation and climate change mitigation. Results show that more than 90% of the studied panda NRs are effective in increasing carbon storage, with the mean biomass carbon density of the whole NRs exhibiting a 4.2% higher growth rate compared with lands not declared as NRs over the period 1988-2012, while this effectiveness in carbon storage masks important patterns of spatial heterogeneity across the giant panda habitats. Moreover, the significant associations have been identified between biomass carbon density and panda's habitat suitability in ~85% NRs and at the NR level. These findings suggest that the planning for carbon and species conservation co-benefits would enhance the greatest return on limited conservation investments, which is a critical need for the giant panda after its conservation status has been downgraded from "endangered" to "vulnerable".

Reassessing the conservation status of the giant panda using remote sensing

The conservation status of the iconic giant panda is a barometer of global conservation efforts. The IUCN Red List has downgraded the panda's extinction risk from "endangered" to "vulnerable". Newly obtained, detailed GIS and remotely sensed data applied consistently over the last four decades show that panda habitat covered less area and was more fragmented in 2013 than in 1988 when the species was listed as endangered.

Role of New Nature Reserve in Assisting Endangered Species Conservation - Case Study of Giant Pandas in the Northern Qionglai Mountains, China

The creation of nature reserves is the most direct way to save endangered species populations and their habitat. Development of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) nature reserve network in China was initiated in the 1960s, though the effort to create new reserves boomed considerably after the year 2000. Given this rapid development of protected areas in panda habitats, and the potential conflicting interests between conservation administrations and local economic development, it is essential to assess the role of new nature reserves in the overall giant panda conservation effort and reserve network. We utilized data from national giant panda surveys conducted in 2000 and 2012 to compare the size, spatial use, and distribution of panda populations, as well as the habitat suitability and connectivity in the Northern Qionglai Mountains between the two survey years. Our results show that although the total giant panda population in the study area did not change remarkably, local changes did occur. Most notably, the population in Wolong Nature Reserve declined by 27.3% (N = 39) and the population in Caopo Nature Reserve increased by 71.4% (N = 29) over the 12-year study period. We also found habitat suitability and availability decreased in both Wolong (12.4%) and Caopo (7.4%), but that the relative density of giant pandas declined (19.2%) and increased (84.6%) at each site, respectively. The distance between centers of high IUA were more distant in 2012 (14.1±1.9km) than that in 2000 (6.1±0.9km; t = -7.4, df = 5, p = 0.001), showing a scattered spatial pattern. Habitat availability decreased by 42% within the corridor between the two reserves, however panda occurrences in the corridor increased 24.6%. Compared to the total number of encounters, the proportion of the corridor increased 45.76%. Our results show the importance and success of the newly established Caopo to the conservation of giant pandas, and how crucial it is to identify and repair reserve corridors. Furthermore, we propose criteria for future nature reserve network management and investment, which is applicable for other endangered species conservation practices.

Progress in the ecology and conservation of giant pandas

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) conservation is a possible success story in the making. If extinction of this iconic endangered species can be avoided, the species will become a showcase program for the Chinese government and its collaborators. We reviewed the major advancements in ecological science for the giant panda, examining how these advancements have contributed to panda conservation. Pandas' morphological and behavioral adaptations to a diet of bamboo, which bear strong influence on movement ecology, have been well studied, providing knowledge to guide management actions ranging from reserve design to climate change mitigation. Foraging ecology has also provided essential information used in the creation of landscape models of panda habitat. Because habitat loss and fragmentation are major drivers of the panda population decline, efforts have been made to help identify core habitat areas, establish where habitat corridors are needed, and prioritize areas for protection and restoration. Thus, habitat models have provided guidance for the Chinese governments' creation of 67 protected areas. Behavioral research has revealed a complex and efficient communication system and documented the need for protection of habitat that serves as a communication platform for bringing the sexes together for mating. Further research shows that den sites in old-growth forests may be a limiting resource, indicating potential value in providing alternative den sites for rearing offspring. Advancements in molecular ecology have been revolutionary and have been applied to population census, determining population structure and genetic diversity, evaluating connectivity following habitat fragmentation, and understanding dispersal patterns. These advancements form a foundation for increasing the application of adaptive management approaches to move panda conservation forward more rapidly. Although the Chinese government has made great progress in setting aside protected areas, future emphasis will be improved management of pandas and their habitat.