Gender equality in 4‐ to 5‐year‐old preschoolers’ early numerical competencies

Cognitive characteristics of children with high mathematics achievement before they start formal schooling

This 5-year longitudinal study examined whether high mathematics achievers in primary school had cognitive advantages before entering formal education. High mathematics achievement was defined as performing above Pc 90 in Grades 1 and 3. The predominantly White sample (Mage in preschool: 64 months) included 31 high achievers (12 girls) and 114 average achievers (63 girls). We measured children's early numerical abilities, complex mathematical abilities, and general cognitive abilities in preschool (2017). High mathematics achievers had advantages on most tasks in preschool (ds > 0.62). Number order, numeral recognition, and proportional reasoning were unique predictors of belonging to the high-achieving group in primary school. This study shows that the cognitive advantages of high mathematics achievement are already observed in preschool.

The inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus correlates with early precursors of mathematics and reading before the start of formal schooling

Diffusion-weighted imaging studies in preschoolers have almost exclusively been done in the field of reading. As a result, virtually nothing is known about white matter tracts associated with individual differences in mathematics at this age. Studying the preschoolers' brain is crucial because it allows us to identify individual differences in brain anatomy without influences of formal mathematics and reading instruction. To fill this gap, we investigated for the first time before the start of formal school entry the associations between white matter tracts and precursors of mathematics and reading simultaneously. We also investigated whether these associations were specific to mathematics and to reading, or not. We focused on four bilateral white matter tracts (arcuate fasciculus (direct, anterior), inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus), which have been previously correlated with mathematical performance in older children and with reading performance in children of a similar age as the current study. Participants were 56 5-year-old children (Mage = 67 months; SD = 1.8), none of which received formal instruction. Our results showed an association between the bilateral inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus and precursors of mathematics (numerical ordering, numeral knowledge) and reading (phonological awareness, letter knowledge). Follow-up regression analyses revealed that the associations found with the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus were neither specific to mathematics nor specific to reading. These findings suggest that, already before the start of formal schooling, the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus might be related to the neural overlap between mathematics and reading. This overlap potentially reflects one of their many shared mechanisms, such as the reliance on phonological codes or the processing of visual symbols, and these mechanisms should be exploited in future studies.

What does gender has to do with math? Complex questions require complex answers

Whether mathematics is a gendered domain or not is a long-lasting issue bringing along major social and educational implications. The females' underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) has been considered one of the key signs of the math gender gap, although the current view largely attributes the origin of this phenomenon to sociocultural factors. Indeed, recent approaches to math gender differences reached the universal conclusion that nature and nurture exert reciprocal effects on each other, establishing the need for approaching the study of the math gender issue only once its intrinsic complexity has been accepted. Building upon a flourishing literature, this review provides an updated synthesis of the evidence for math gender equality at the start, and for math gender inequality on the go, challenging the role of biological factors. In particular, by combining recent findings from different research areas, the paper discusses the persistence of the "math male myth" and the associated "female are not good at math myth," drawing attention to the complex interplay of social and cultural forces that support such stereotypes. The suggestion is made that longevity of these myths results from the additive effects of two independent cognitive biases associated with gender stereotypes and with math stereotypes, respectively. Scholars' responsibility in amplifying these myths by pursuing some catching lines of research is also discussed.

Spatial and mathematics skills: Similarities and differences related to age, SES, and gender

Performance on a range of spatial and mathematics tasks was measured in a sample of 1592 students in kindergarten, third grade, and sixth grade. In a previously published analysis of these data, performance was analyzed by grade only. In the present analyses, we examined whether the relations between spatial skill and mathematics skill differed across socio-economic levels, for boys versus girls, or both. Our first aim was to test for group differences in spatial skill and mathematics skill. We found that children from higher income families showed significantly better performance on both spatial and mathematics measures, and boys outperformed girls on spatial measures in all three grades, but only outperformed girls on mathematics measures in kindergarten. Further, comparisons using factor analysis indicated that the income-related gap in mathematics performance increased across the grade levels, while the income-related gap in spatial performance remained constant. Our second aim was to test whether spatial skill mediated any of these effects, and we found that it did, either partially or fully, in all four cases. Our third aim was to test whether the "separate but correlated" two-factor latent structure previously reported for spatial skill and mathematics skill was (Mix et al., 2016; Mix et al., 2017) replicated across grade, SES, and sex. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses conducted for each of these subgroups indicated that the same latent structure was present, despite differences in overall performance. These findings replicate and extend prior work on SES and sex differences related to spatial and mathematics skill, but provide evidence that the relations between the domains are stable and consistent across subgroups.

Relations among spatial skills, number line estimation, and exact and approximate calculation in young children

Decades of research have established that spatial skills correlate with numerical skills. However, because both spatial and numerical skills are multidimensional, we sought to determine how specific spatial skills relate to specific numeracy skills. We used a cohort-sequential design, assessing a large diverse sample of students (N = 612, initially in pre-kindergarten [pre-K]-3rd grade, 4-9 years of age) at four time points spanning 2 years. We examined how initial levels of five spatial skills (visuospatial working memory [VSWM], mental transformation, mental rotation, proportional reasoning, and analog magnitude system [AMS] acuity) related to initial levels and growth rates in exact and approximate calculation skills, and we further investigated number line estimation as a potential mediator. We found unique patterns of relations between spatial skills and numeracy. Initial levels of mental rotation, proportional reasoning, and AMS acuity related to initial levels of exact calculation skill; initial levels of AMS acuity related to initial levels of approximate calculation; and initial levels of proportional reasoning related to initial levels of number line estimation. VSWM and mental transformation did not relate to numeracy skills after controlling for other spatial skills. Initial levels of number line estimation related to both exact and approximate calculation after controlling for spatial skills. Notably, neither spatial skills nor number line estimation predicted growth in exact or approximate calculation skills. These results indicate that there is specificity in the time-invariant relations between spatial skills and numeracy, and they suggest that researchers and educators should treat spatial skills and numeracy as multidimensional constructs with complex and unique interrelations.

Next Directions in Measurement of the Home Mathematics Environment: An International and Interdisciplinary Perspective

This article synthesizes findings from an international virtual conference, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), focused on the home mathematics environment (HME). In light of inconsistencies and gaps in research investigating relations between the HME and children's outcomes, the purpose of the conference was to discuss actionable steps and considerations for future work. The conference was composed of international researchers with a wide range of expertise and backgrounds. Presentations and discussions during the conference centered broadly on the need to better operationalize and measure the HME as a construct - focusing on issues related to child, family, and community factors, country and cultural factors, and the cognitive and affective characteristics of caregivers and children. Results of the conference and a subsequent writing workshop include a synthesis of core questions and key considerations for the field of research on the HME. Findings highlight the need for the field at large to use multi-method measurement approaches to capture nuances in the HME, and to do so with increased international and interdisciplinary collaboration, open science practices, and communication among scholars.

Associations Between Repeating Patterning, Growing Patterning, and Numerical Ability: A Longitudinal Panel Study in 4- to 6-Year Olds

The present study aimed to analyze the direction of the associations between repeating patterning, growing patterning, and numerical ability. Participants were 410 children who were annually assessed on their repeating patterning, growing patterning, and numerical ability, at ages 4, 5, and 6 years (i.e., spring 2017, 2018, and 2019). A cross-lagged panel model identified bidirectional associations between all three abilities from ages 4 to 5 years while taking into account spatial skills. From ages 5 to 6 years, both patterning abilities predicted later numerical ability, but the reverse was no longer true. Associations between performances on both pattern types also disappeared. Results highlight the unique associations between repeating patterning, growing patterning, and numerical ability, above spatial skills.

No Association Between the Home Math Environment and Numerical and Patterning Skills in a Large and Diverse Sample of 5- to 6-year-olds

Selecting a large and diverse sample of 5–6-year-old preschool children (179 boys and 174 girls; M_age = 70.03 months, SD_age = 3.43), we aimed to extend previous findings on variability in children’s home math environment (i.e., home math activities, parental expectations, and attitudes) and its association with children’s mathematical skills. We operationalized mathematics in a broader way than in previous studies, by considering not only children’s numerical skills but also their patterning skills as integral components of early mathematical development. We investigated the effects of children’s gender and socioeconomic status (SES) on their home math environment, examined the associations between children’s home math environment and their mathematical skills, and verified whether these associations were moderated by children’s gender and/or SES. Parents of 353 children completed a home math environment questionnaire and all children completed measures of their numerical (e.g., object counting) and patterning skills (e.g., extending repeating patterns). Results indicated no effect of children’s gender on their home math environment. There was no effect of SES on the performed home math activities, but small SES differences existed in parents’ math-related expectations and their attitudes. We found no evidence for associations between children’s home math environment and their mathematical skills. Furthermore, there were no moderating effects of gender or SES on these associations. One explanation for these findings might relate to the characteristics of the general preschool system in the country of the present study (Belgium). Future studies should consider the effect of the preschool learning environment because it might explain differences between studies and countries with regard to the home math environment and its association with mathematical skills.

Transparent number-naming system gives only limited advantage for preschooler's numerical development: Comparisons of Vietnamese and French-speaking children

Several cross-sectional studies have suggested that the transparency of the number-naming system of East Asian languages (Chinese, Japanese) facilitates children's numerical development. The Vietnamese number-naming system also makes the base-10 system very explicit (eleven is "mười một," literally "ten-one," and thirty is "ba mươi," literally "three-ten"). In contrast, Western languages (English, French) include teen words (eleven to sixteen) and ten words (twenty to ninety) that make their counting systems less transparent. The main question addressed in this paper is: To what extent does a language's number-naming system impact preschoolers' numerical development? Our study participants comprised 104 Vietnamese and 104 French-speaking Belgian children between 3½ and 5½ years of age, as well as their parents. We tested the children on eight numerical tasks (counting, advanced counting, enumeration, Give-N, number-word comparison, collection comparison, addition, and approximate addition) and some general cognitive abilities (IQ and phonological loop by letter span). The parents completed a questionnaire on the frequency with which they stimulated their child's numeracy and literacy at home. The results indicated that Vietnamese children outperformed Belgian children only in counting. However, neither group differed in other symbolic or non-symbolic abilities, although Vietnamese parents tended to stimulate their child at home slightly more than Belgian parents. We concluded that the Vietnamese number-naming system's transparency led to faster acquisition of basic counting for preschoolers but did not support other more advanced numerical skills or non-symbolic numerical abilities. In addition, we extended the evidence that both transparent number-naming system and home numeracy influence young children's counting development.

Assessing Gender Gaps in Educational Provision, Research and Employment Opportunities in the Transport Sector at the European Level

Serious gaps are found when evaluating the recognition and inclusion of gender aspects in transport strategies, research and innovation. Similar issues can be spotted in the transport labor market, where only 22% of workers are women at the European level. The roots of these limitations are in the low participation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) studies and, therefore, in the traditionally male-dominated transport field occupations. Stemming from the European project TInnGO, the current paper proposes a descriptive analysis to evaluate the gender gaps in educational provision and research in ten European countries. Specific indicators, such as percentages in the gender composition or the presence of university courses dealing with mobility and transport, have been defined and their availability in different countries is verified. In addition, a desktop review of practices for encouraging and supporting women in STEM studies is operated, underling characteristics such as the kind of initiative, the methods and tools used, the target group or the type of promoter. The results of this activity show that a wide network of associations and mentoring operates in various European nations, mostly targeting secondary school students, trying to make females aware of their potentialities in a deeply gender-biased field like the STEM one.

Gender differences in the development of semantic and spatial processing of numbers

This study recruited kindergarteners and first graders to investigate gender and grade differences in semantic and spatial processing of number magnitude. Results based on the Bayesian statistics showed that (1) there was extreme evidence in favour of grade differences in both semantic processing and spatial processing; (2) there were no gender differences in semantic processing; and (3) boys developed earlier than girls in spatial processing of numbers, especially for the more difficult task. These results are discussed in terms of gender differences in cognitive mechanisms underlying semantic and spatial processing of number magnitude.

A Finger-Based Numerical Training Failed to Improve Arithmetic Skills in Kindergarten Children Beyond Effects of an Active Non-numerical Control Training

It is widely accepted that finger and number representations are associated: many correlations (including longitudinal ones) between finger gnosis/counting and numerical/arithmetical abilities have been reported. However, such correlations do not necessarily imply causal influence of early finger-number training; even in longitudinal designs, mediating variables may be underlying such correlations. Therefore, we investigated whether there may be a causal relation by means of an extensive experimental intervention in which the impact of finger-number training on initial arithmetic skills was tested in kindergarteners to see whether they benefit from the intervention even before they start formal schooling. The experimental group received 50 training sessions altogether for 10 weeks on a daily basis. A control group received phonology training of a similar duration and intensity. All children improved in the arithmetic tasks. To our surprise and contrary to most accounts in the literature, the improvement shown by the experimental training group was not superior to that of the active control group. We discuss conceptual and methodological reasons why the finger-number training employed in this study did not increase the initial arithmetic skills beyond the unspecific effects of the control intervention.

Differential Contributions of Empathy to Math Achievement in Women and Men

Mathematics forms a foundation for the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. While considerable work has identified the individual cognitive and external systemic factors that influence math achievement, less is known about personality-like traits that might contribute to success in mathematics, especially among women. This study examines two such traits: systemizing – the tendency to analyze systems and extract underlying rules that govern their behavior – and empathizing – the ability to identify with another’s emotions and respond appropriately. Recently Escovar et al. (2016) found that empathizing was a negative predictor of math skills in children, especially among girls, suggesting that women with higher empathy might be particularly disposed to lower math performance. In the first study, 142 participants (71 female) completed two standardized measures of math achievement and questionnaires to gauge the tendency to empathize and systemize. Surprisingly, higher empathy was associated with better math performance in women, while men displayed the expected pattern of lower empathy being related to higher math scores. In a second study, we extend this finding in women (n = 121) to show that individuals who report higher mathematics achievement in university level course work also have higher empathy scores. Further, while positive attitudes toward mathematics tended to decline from elementary school to college, women whose attitudes increased had higher empathy scores than those who declined. Together, these results suggest that while the tendency to empathize is associated with worse math performance in childhood, it may become a protective factor as women progress through their mathematics education.

Interactive apps prevent gender discrepancies in early-grade mathematics in a low-income country in sub-Sahara Africa

Globally, gender differences are reported in the early acquisition of reading and mathematics as girls tend to outperform boys in reading, whereas boys tend to outperform girls in mathematics. This can have long‐term impact resulting in an under‐representation of girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics subjects. Recent research suggests that sociocultural factors account for differences across genders in the acquisition of these foundational skills. In this study, we investigated whether a new technology‐based intervention, that included activities accessible to both boys and girls, can reduce gender differences from emerging during the early primary school years. The novel instructional method used in this study employed apps developed by onebillion© delivered individually through touch‐screen tablets. Over a series of experiments conducted in Malawi, a low‐income country in sub‐Sahara Africa, we found that when children were exposed to standard pedagogical practice typical gender differences emerged over the first grade (Experiment 1). In contrast, boys and girls learnt equally well with the new interactive apps designed to support the learning of mathematics (Experiment 2) and reading (Experiment 3). When implemented at the start of primary education, before significant gender discrepancies become established, this novel technology‐based intervention can prevent significant gender effects for mathematics. These results demonstrate that different instructional practices influence the emergence of gender disparities in early mathematics. Digital interventions can mitigate gender differences in countries where standard pedagogical instruction typically hinders girls from acquiring early mathematical skills at the same rate as boys.

A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55x-6hhAY9M&feature=youtu.be