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Karagöz Z, Passanha FR, Robeerst L, van Griensven M, LaPointe VLS, Carlier A. Computational evidence for multi-layer crosstalk between the cadherin-11 and PDGFR pathways. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15804. [PMID: 37737289 PMCID: PMC10517159 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42624-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Various cell surface receptors play an important role in the differentiation and self-renewal of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). One example of such receptors are the cadherins, which maintain cell-cell adhesion and mechanically couple cells together. Recently, cadherin-11, which is a member of the type II classical cadherin family, has been shown to be involved in the fate commitment of hMSCs. Interestingly, cadherin-11 has no known intrinsic signaling activity and is thought to affect cell behavior via interactions with other cell surface receptors. Members of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) family are hypothesized to be one of the interaction partners of cadherin-11. Experiments confirmed that PDGFR-α binding to extracellular cadherin-11 regions increases the PDGFR-α activity, whereas the interaction between PDGFR-β and cadherin-11 suppresses the activity of the growth factor receptor. Cadherin-11 knockdown experiments also decreased cell proliferation. These interactions between cadherin-11 and PDGFRs indicate a crosstalk between these receptors and their downstream signaling activities but the nature of this crosstalk is not entirely known. In this study, we used a computational model to represent the experimentally proven interactions between cadherin-11 and the two PDGFRs and we inspected whether the crosstalk also exists downstream of the signaling initiated by the two receptor families. The computational framework allowed us to monitor the relative activity levels of each protein in the network. We performed model simulations to mimic the conditions of previous cadherin-11 knockdown experiments and to predict the effect of crosstalk on cell proliferation. Overall, our predictions suggest the existence of another layer of crosstalk, namely between β-catenin (downstream to cadherin-11) and an ERK inhibitor protein (e.g. DUSP1), different than the crosstalk at the receptor level between cadherin-11 and PDGFR-α and -β. By investigating the multi-level crosstalk between cadherin and PDGFRs computationally, this study contributes to an improved understanding of the effect of cell surface receptors on hMSCs proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Karagöz
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Fiona R Passanha
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Lars Robeerst
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn van Griensven
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Vanessa L S LaPointe
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Aurélie Carlier
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering (cBITE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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Tokumon R, Sebastián I, Humbel BM, Okura N, Yamanaka H, Yamashiro T, Toma C. Degradation of p0071 and p120-catenin during adherens junction disassembly by Leptospira interrogans. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1228051. [PMID: 37795382 PMCID: PMC10545952 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1228051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans disseminates hematogenously to reach the target organs by disrupting epithelial adherens junctions (AJs), thus causing leptospirosis, which is a globally neglected zoonotic disease. L. interrogans induces E-cadherin (E-cad) endocytosis and cytoskeletal rearrangement during AJ disassembly, but the detailed mechanism remains unknown. Elucidation of AJ disassembly mechanisms will guide new approaches to developing vaccines and diagnostic methods. In this study, we combine proteomic and imaging analysis with chemical inhibition studies to demonstrate that disrupting the AJs of renal proximal tubule epithelial cells involves the degradation of two armadillo repeat-containing proteins, p0071 and p120-catenin, that stabilize E-cad at the plasma membrane. Combining proteasomal and lysosomal inhibitors substantially prevented p120-catenin degradation, and monolayer integrity destruction without preventing p0071 proteolysis. In contrast, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK inhibited p0071 proteolysis and displacement of both armadillo repeat-containing proteins from the cell-cell junctions. Our results show that L. interrogans induces p120-catenin and p0071 degradation, which mutually regulates E-cad stability by co-opting multiple cellular degradation pathways. This strategy may allow L. interrogans to disassemble AJs and disseminate through the body efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina Tokumon
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Isabel Sebastián
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Bruno M. Humbel
- Provost Office, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
- Microscopy Center, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Okura
- Department of Molecular Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hidenori Yamanaka
- Environmental Technology Department, Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tetsu Yamashiro
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
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Tonami K, Hayashi T, Uchijima Y, Kanai M, Yura F, Mada J, Sugahara K, Kurihara Y, Kominami Y, Ushijima T, Takubo N, Liu X, Tozawa H, Kanai Y, Tokihiro T, Kurihara H. Coordinated linear and rotational movements of endothelial cells compartmentalized by VE-cadherin drive angiogenic sprouting. iScience 2023; 26:107051. [PMID: 37426350 PMCID: PMC10329149 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is a sequential process to extend new blood vessels from preexisting ones by sprouting and branching. During angiogenesis, endothelial cells (ECs) exhibit inhomogeneous multicellular behaviors referred to as "cell mixing," in which ECs repetitively exchange their relative positions, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here we identified the coordinated linear and rotational movements potentiated by cell-cell contact as drivers of sprouting angiogenesis using in vitro and in silico approaches. VE-cadherin confers the coordinated linear motility that facilitated forward sprout elongation, although it is dispensable for rotational movement, which was synchronous without VE-cadherin. Mathematical modeling recapitulated the EC motility in the two-cell state and angiogenic morphogenesis with the effects of VE-cadherin-knockout. Finally, we found that VE-cadherin-dependent EC compartmentalization potentiated branch elongations, and confirmed this by mathematical simulation. Collectively, we propose a way to understand angiogenesis, based on unique EC behavioral properties that are partially dependent on VE-cadherin function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Tonami
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Hayashi
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
- Graduate School of Mathematical Science, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8914, Japan
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Chuo University, 1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551, Japan
| | - Yasunobu Uchijima
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kanai
- Department of Education and Creation Engineering, Kurume Institute of Technology, 2228-66 Kamitsu-machi, Kurume, Fukuoka 830-0052, Japan
| | - Fumitaka Yura
- Department of Complex and Intelligent Systems, School of Systems Information Science, Future University Hakodate, 116-2 Kamedanakano-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8655, Japan
| | - Jun Mada
- College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, 2-11-1 Shin-ei, Narashino, Chiba 275-8576, Japan
| | - Kei Sugahara
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yukiko Kurihara
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yuri Kominami
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-865, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Ushijima
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Naoko Takubo
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
- Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Xiaoxiao Liu
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hideto Tozawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, the University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yoshimitsu Kanai
- Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8509, Japan
| | - Tetsuji Tokihiro
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
- Graduate School of Mathematical Science, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8914, Japan
- Department of Mathematical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Musashino University, 3-3-3 Ariake, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8181, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kurihara
- Department of Physiological Chemistry and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
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Abstract
The term "molecular ZIP (or area) codes" refers to an originally hypothetical system of cell adhesion molecules that would control cell trafficking in the body. Subsequent discovery of the integrins, cadherins, and other cell adhesion molecules confirmed this hypothesis. The recognition system encompassing integrins and their ligands came particularly close to fulfilling the original ZIP code hypothesis, as multiple integrins with closely related specificities mediate cell adhesion by binding to an RGD or related sequence in various extracellular matrix proteins. Diseased tissues have their own molecular addresses that, although not necessarily involved in cell trafficking, can be made use of in targeted drug delivery. This article discusses the molecular basis of ZIP codes and the extensive effort under way to harness them for drug delivery purposes.
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Sisto M, Ribatti D, Lisi S. Cadherin Signaling in Cancer and Autoimmune Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413358. [PMID: 34948155 PMCID: PMC8704376 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cadherins mediate cell–cell adhesion through a dynamic process that is strongly dependent on the cellular context and signaling. Cadherin regulation reflects the interplay between fundamental cellular processes, including morphogenesis, proliferation, programmed cell death, surface organization of receptors, cytoskeletal organization, and cell trafficking. The variety of molecular mechanisms and cellular functions regulated by cadherins suggests that we have only scratched the surface in terms of clarifying the functions mediated by these versatile proteins. Altered cadherins expression is closely connected with tumorigenesis, epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT)-dependent fibrosis, and autoimmunity. We review the current understanding of how cadherins contribute to human health and disease, considering the mechanisms of cadherin involvement in diseases progression, as well as the clinical significance of cadherins as therapeutic targets.
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Ferulic Acid Induces Keratin 6α via Inhibition of Nuclear β-Catenin Accumulation and Activation of Nrf2 in Wound-Induced Inflammation. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050459. [PMID: 33922346 PMCID: PMC8146113 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Injured tissue triggers complex interactions through biological process associated with keratins. Rapid recovery is most important for protection against secondary infection and inflammatory pain. For rapid wound healing with minimal pain and side effects, shilajit has been used as an ayurvedic medicine. However, the mechanisms of rapid wound closure are unknown. Here, we found that shilajit induced wound closure in an acute wound model and induced migration in skin explant cultures through evaluation of transcriptomics via microarray testing. In addition, ferulic acid (FA), as a bioactive compound, induced migration via modulation of keratin 6α (K6α) and inhibition of β-catenin in primary keratinocytes of skin explant culture and injured full-thickness skin, because accumulation of β-catenin into the nucleus acts as a negative regulator and disturbs migration in human epidermal keratinocytes. Furthermore, FA alleviated wound-induced inflammation via activation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) at the wound edge. These findings show that FA is a novel therapeutic agent for wound healing that acts via inhibition of β-catenin in keratinocytes and by activation of Nrf2 in wound-induced inflammation.
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Polanco J, Reyes-Vigil F, Weisberg SD, Dhimitruka I, Brusés JL. Differential Spatiotemporal Expression of Type I and Type II Cadherins Associated With the Segmentation of the Central Nervous System and Formation of Brain Nuclei in the Developing Mouse. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:633719. [PMID: 33833667 PMCID: PMC8021962 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.633719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I and type II classical cadherins comprise a family of cell adhesion molecules that regulate cell sorting and tissue separation by forming specific homo and heterophilic bonds. Factors that affect cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion include cadherin binding affinity and expression level. This study examines the expression pattern of type I cadherins (Cdh1, Cdh2, Cdh3, and Cdh4), type II cadherins (Cdh6, Cdh7, Cdh8, Cdh9, Cdh10, Cdh11, Cdh12, Cdh18, Cdh20, and Cdh24), and the atypical cadherin 13 (Cdh13) during distinct morphogenetic events in the developing mouse central nervous system from embryonic day 11.5 to postnatal day 56. Cadherin mRNA expression levels obtained from in situ hybridization experiments carried out at the Allen Institute for Brain Science (https://alleninstitute.org/) were retrieved from the Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas. Cdh2 is the most abundantly expressed type I cadherin throughout development, while Cdh1, Cdh3, and Cdh4 are expressed at low levels. Type II cadherins show a dynamic pattern of expression that varies between neuroanatomical structures and developmental ages. Atypical Cdh13 expression pattern correlates with Cdh2 in abundancy and localization. Analyses of cadherin-mediated relative adhesion estimated from their expression level and binding affinity show substantial differences in adhesive properties between regions of the neural tube associated with the segmentation along the anterior–posterior axis. Differences in relative adhesion were also observed between brain nuclei in the developing subpallium (basal ganglia), suggesting that differential cell adhesion contributes to the segregation of neuronal pools. In the adult cerebral cortex, type II cadherins Cdh6, Cdh8, Cdh10, and Cdh12 are abundant in intermediate layers, while Cdh11 shows a gradated expression from the deeper layer 6 to the superficial layer 1, and Cdh9, Cdh18, and Cdh24 are more abundant in the deeper layers. Person’s correlation analyses of cadherins mRNA expression patterns between areas and layers of the cerebral cortex and the nuclei of the subpallium show significant correlations between certain cortical areas and the basal ganglia. The study shows that differential cadherin expression and cadherin-mediated adhesion are associated with a wide range of morphogenetic events in the developing central nervous system including the organization of neurons into layers, the segregation of neurons into nuclei, and the formation of neuronal circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Polanco
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY, United States
| | - Fredy Reyes-Vigil
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY, United States
| | - Sarah D Weisberg
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY, United States
| | - Ilirian Dhimitruka
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY, United States
| | - Juan L Brusés
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY, United States
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Honig B, Shapiro L. Adhesion Protein Structure, Molecular Affinities, and Principles of Cell-Cell Recognition. Cell 2021; 181:520-535. [PMID: 32359436 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The ability of cells to organize into multicellular structures in precise patterns requires that they "recognize" one another with high specificity. We discuss recent progress in understanding the molecular basis of cell-cell recognition, including unique phenomena associated with neuronal interactions. We describe structures of select adhesion receptor complexes and their assembly into larger intercellular junction structures and discuss emerging principles that relate cell-cell organization to the binding specificities and energetics of adhesion receptors. Armed with these insights, advances in protein design and gene editing should pave the way for breakthroughs toward understanding the molecular basis of cell patterning in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Honig
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Lawrence Shapiro
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Sanes JR, Zipursky SL. Synaptic Specificity, Recognition Molecules, and Assembly of Neural Circuits. Cell 2020; 181:536-556. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Warga RM, Kane DA. Probing Cadherin Interactions in Zebrafish with E- and N-Cadherin Missense Mutants. Genetics 2018; 210:1391-1409. [PMID: 30361324 PMCID: PMC6283153 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.118.301692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cadherins are cell adhesion molecules that regulate numerous adhesive interactions during embryonic development and adult life. Consistent with these functions, when their expression goes astray cells lose their normal adhesive properties resulting in defective morphogenesis, disease, and even metastatic cancer. In general, classical cadherins exert their effect by homophilic interactions via their five characteristic extracellular (EC) repeats. The EC1 repeat provides the mechanism for cadherins to dimerize with each other whereas the EC2 repeat may facilitate dimerization. Less is known about the other EC repeats. Here, we show that a zebrafish missense mutation in the EC5 repeat of N-cadherin is a dominant gain-of-function mutation and demonstrate that this mutation alters cell adhesion almost to the same degree as a zebrafish missense mutation in the EC1 repeat of N-cadherin. We also show that zebrafish E- and N-cadherin dominant gain-of-function missense mutations genetically interact. Perturbation of cell adhesion in embryos that are heterozygous mutant at both loci is similar to that observed in single homozygous mutants. Introducing an E-cadherin EC5 missense allele into the homozygous N-cadherin EC1 missense mutant more radically affects morphogenesis, causing synergistic phenotypes consistent with interdependent functions being disrupted. Our studies indicate that a functional EC5 repeat is critical for cadherin-mediated cell affinity, suggesting that its role may be more important than previously thought. These results also suggest the possibility that E- and N-cadherin have heterophilic interactions during early morphogenesis of the embryo; interactions that might help balance the variety of cell affinities needed during embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Warga
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008
| | - Donald A Kane
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008
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