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Goldstein-Marcusohn Y, Asaad R, Asaad L, Freud E. The large-scale organization of shape processing in the ventral and dorsal pathways is dissociable from attention. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhae221. [PMID: 38832533 PMCID: PMC11148664 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The two visual pathways model posits that visual information is processed through two distinct cortical systems: The ventral pathway promotes visual recognition, while the dorsal pathway supports visuomotor control. Recent evidence suggests the dorsal pathway is also involved in shape processing and may contribute to object perception, but it remains unclear whether this sensitivity is independent of attentional mechanisms that were localized to overlapping cortical regions. To address this question, we conducted two fMRI experiments that utilized different parametric scrambling manipulations in which human participants viewed novel objects in different levels of scrambling and were instructed to attend to either the object or to another aspect of the image (e.g. color of the background). Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that the large-scale organization of shape selectivity along the dorsal and ventral pathways was preserved regardless of the focus of attention. Attention did modulate shape sensitivity, but these effects were similar across the two pathways. These findings support the idea that shape processing is at least partially dissociable from attentional processes and relies on a distributed set of cortical regions across the visual pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Goldstein-Marcusohn
- Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Rahaf Asaad
- Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Leen Asaad
- Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Erez Freud
- Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
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2
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Lim M, Kim SS, Lee CL, Lee Y, Kwak HS. Effects of Simulated Airplane Cabin Noise on In-Flight Meal Perception in the Brain Using Electroencephalography. Foods 2024; 13:1012. [PMID: 38611318 PMCID: PMC11011798 DOI: 10.3390/foods13071012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Auditory distractions can impair the sensory evaluation of food; however, the specific impact of airplane cabin noise on the sensory perception of in-flight meals remains poorly studied. Here, we investigated the effects of airplane cabin noise on the visual processing of in-flight meal stimuli using electroencephalography (EEG) in twenty healthy male subjects. Resting-state EEG and event-related potential (ERP) responses to in-flight meal images were acquired during quiet and simulated cabin noise conditions. Participants reported mild discomfort and some loss of appetite when exposed to airplane cabin noise. The analysis of resting-state EEG showed an increase in the absolute power of theta and beta frequency bands in the left superior parietal and left frontal/right central regions under simulated cabin noise conditions, compared to quiet conditions. The ERP results showed that the amplitude of responses evoked by visual meal images in the superior parietal area was reduced in the noise condition compared to the quiet condition. Our findings suggest that airplane cabin noise disrupts the visual perception and attentional processing of in-flight food stimuli. These neural changes imply an impact on integrating sensory information, resulting in altered sensory evaluations of food during in-flight dining experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manyoel Lim
- Food Processing Research Group, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun 55465, Republic of Korea; (M.L.); (S.S.K.); (C.-L.L.)
| | - Sang Sook Kim
- Food Processing Research Group, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun 55465, Republic of Korea; (M.L.); (S.S.K.); (C.-L.L.)
| | - Cho-Long Lee
- Food Processing Research Group, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun 55465, Republic of Korea; (M.L.); (S.S.K.); (C.-L.L.)
| | - Youngseung Lee
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Cheonan-si 31116, Republic of Korea;
| | - Han Sub Kwak
- Food Processing Research Group, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun 55465, Republic of Korea; (M.L.); (S.S.K.); (C.-L.L.)
- KFRI School, University of Science and Technology, Wanju-gun 55465, Republic of Korea
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3
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Rockland KS. Cellular and laminar architecture: A short history and commentary. J Comp Neurol 2023; 531:1926-1933. [PMID: 37941081 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
The feedforward/feedback classification, as originally stated in relation to early visual areas in the macaque monkey, has had a significant influence on ideas of laminar interactions, area reciprocity, and cortical hierarchical organization. In some contrast with this macroscale "laminar connectomics," a more cellular approach to cortical connections, as briefly surveyed here, points to a still underappreciated heterogeneity of neuronal subtypes and complex microcircuitries. From the perspective of heterogeneities, the question of how brain regions interact and influence each other quickly leads to discussions about concurrent hierarchical and nonhierarchical cortical features, brain organization as a multiscale system forming nested groups and hierarchies, connectomes annotated by multiple biological attributes, and interleaved and overlapping scales of organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen S Rockland
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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4
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Wu YH, Podvalny E, He BJ. Spatiotemporal neural dynamics of object recognition under uncertainty in humans. eLife 2023; 12:e84797. [PMID: 37184213 PMCID: PMC10231926 DOI: 10.7554/elife.84797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
While there is a wealth of knowledge about core object recognition-our ability to recognize clear, high-contrast object images-how the brain accomplishes object recognition tasks under increased uncertainty remains poorly understood. We investigated the spatiotemporal neural dynamics underlying object recognition under increased uncertainty by combining MEG and 7 Tesla (7T) fMRI in humans during a threshold-level object recognition task. We observed an early, parallel rise of recognition-related signals across ventral visual and frontoparietal regions that preceded the emergence of category-related information. Recognition-related signals in ventral visual regions were best explained by a two-state representational format whereby brain activity bifurcated for recognized and unrecognized images. By contrast, recognition-related signals in frontoparietal regions exhibited a reduced representational space for recognized images, yet with sharper category information. These results provide a spatiotemporally resolved view of neural activity supporting object recognition under uncertainty, revealing a pattern distinct from that underlying core object recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-hao Wu
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Ella Podvalny
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Biyu J He
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
- Department of Neuroscience & Physiology, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
- Department of Radiology, New York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
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5
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An expanded neural framework for shape perception. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:212-213. [PMID: 36635181 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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6
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Ayzenberg V, Simmons C, Behrmann M. Temporal asymmetries and interactions between dorsal and ventral visual pathways during object recognition. Cereb Cortex Commun 2023; 4:tgad003. [PMID: 36726794 PMCID: PMC9883614 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgad003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite their anatomical and functional distinctions, there is growing evidence that the dorsal and ventral visual pathways interact to support object recognition. However, the exact nature of these interactions remains poorly understood. Is the presence of identity-relevant object information in the dorsal pathway simply a byproduct of ventral input? Or, might the dorsal pathway be a source of input to the ventral pathway for object recognition? In the current study, we used high-density EEG-a technique with high temporal precision and spatial resolution sufficient to distinguish parietal and temporal lobes-to characterise the dynamics of dorsal and ventral pathways during object viewing. Using multivariate analyses, we found that category decoding in the dorsal pathway preceded that in the ventral pathway. Importantly, the dorsal pathway predicted the multivariate responses of the ventral pathway in a time-dependent manner, rather than the other way around. Together, these findings suggest that the dorsal pathway is a critical source of input to the ventral pathway for object recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Ayzenberg
- Neuroscience Institute and Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Claire Simmons
- School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Neuroscience Institute and Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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7
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Ayzenberg V, Behrmann M. Does the brain's ventral visual pathway compute object shape? Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:1119-1132. [PMID: 36272937 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A rich behavioral literature has shown that human object recognition is supported by a representation of shape that is tolerant to variations in an object's appearance. Such 'global' shape representations are achieved by describing objects via the spatial arrangement of their local features, or structure, rather than by the appearance of the features themselves. However, accumulating evidence suggests that the ventral visual pathway - the primary substrate underlying object recognition - may not represent global shape. Instead, ventral representations may be better described as a basis set of local image features. We suggest that this evidence forces a reevaluation of the role of the ventral pathway in object perception and posits a broader network for shape perception that encompasses contributions from the dorsal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Ayzenberg
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; The Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
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8
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Ayzenberg V, Behrmann M. The Dorsal Visual Pathway Represents Object-Centered Spatial Relations for Object Recognition. J Neurosci 2022; 42:4693-4710. [PMID: 35508386 PMCID: PMC9186804 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2257-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although there is mounting evidence that input from the dorsal visual pathway is crucial for object processes in the ventral pathway, the specific functional contributions of dorsal cortex to these processes remain poorly understood. Here, we hypothesized that dorsal cortex computes the spatial relations among an object's parts, a process crucial for forming global shape percepts, and transmits this information to the ventral pathway to support object categorization. Using fMRI with human participants (females and males), we discovered regions in the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) that were selectively involved in computing object-centered part relations. These regions exhibited task-dependent functional and effective connectivity with ventral cortex, and were distinct from other dorsal regions, such as those representing allocentric relations, 3D shape, and tools. In a subsequent experiment, we found that the multivariate response of posterior (p)IPS, defined on the basis of part-relations, could be used to decode object category at levels comparable to ventral object regions. Moreover, mediation and multivariate effective connectivity analyses further suggested that IPS may account for representations of part relations in the ventral pathway. Together, our results highlight specific contributions of the dorsal visual pathway to object recognition. We suggest that dorsal cortex is a crucial source of input to the ventral pathway and may support the ability to categorize objects on the basis of global shape.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Humans categorize novel objects rapidly and effortlessly. Such categorization is achieved by representing an object's global shape structure, that is, the relations among object parts. Yet, despite their importance, it is unclear how part relations are represented neurally. Here, we hypothesized that object-centered part relations may be computed by the dorsal visual pathway, which is typically implicated in visuospatial processing. Using fMRI, we identified regions selective for the part relations in dorsal cortex. We found that these regions can support object categorization, and even mediate representations of part relations in the ventral pathway, the region typically thought to support object categorization. Together, these findings shed light on the broader network of brain regions that support object categorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Ayzenberg
- Neuroscience Institute and Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Neuroscience Institute and Psychology Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
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9
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Duan Y, Thatte J, Yaklovleva A, Norcia AM. Disparity in Context: Understanding how monocular image content interacts with disparity processing in human visual cortex. Neuroimage 2021; 237:118139. [PMID: 33964460 PMCID: PMC10786599 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Horizontal disparities between the two eyes' retinal images are the primary cue for depth. Commonly used random ot tereograms (RDS) intentionally camouflage the disparity cue, breaking the correlations between monocular image structure and the depth map that are present in natural images. Because of the nonlinear nature of visual processing, it is unlikely that simple computational rules derived from RDS will be sufficient to explain binocular vision in natural environments. In order to understand the interplay between natural scene structure and disparity encoding, we used a depth-image-based-rendering technique and a library of natural 3D stereo pairs to synthesize two novel stereogram types in which monocular scene content was manipulated independent of scene depth information. The half-images of the novel stereograms comprised either random-dots or scrambled natural scenes, each with the same depth maps as the corresponding natural scene stereograms. Using these stereograms in a simultaneous Event-Related Potential and behavioral discrimination task, we identified multiple disparity-contingent encoding stages between 100 ~ 500 msec. The first disparity sensitive evoked potential was observed at ~100 msec after an earlier evoked potential (between ~50-100 msec) that was sensitive to the structure of the monocular half-images but blind to disparity. Starting at ~150 msec, disparity responses were stereogram-specific and predictive of perceptual depth. Complex features associated with natural scene content are thus at least partially coded prior to disparity information, but these features and possibly others associated with natural scene content interact with disparity information only after an intermediate, 2D scene-independent disparity processing stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Duan
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, 290 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Jayant Thatte
- Department of Electrical Engineering, David Packard Building, Stanford University, 350 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305
| | | | - Anthony M Norcia
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, 290 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305.
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10
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Waterstraat G, Körber R, Storm JH, Curio G. Noninvasive neuromagnetic single-trial analysis of human neocortical population spikes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2017401118. [PMID: 33707209 PMCID: PMC7980398 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2017401118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal spiking is commonly recorded by invasive sharp microelectrodes, whereas standard noninvasive macroapproaches (e.g., electroencephalography [EEG] and magnetoencephalography [MEG]) predominantly represent mass postsynaptic potentials. A notable exception are low-amplitude high-frequency (∼600 Hz) somatosensory EEG/MEG responses that can represent population spikes when averaged over hundreds of trials to raise the signal-to-noise ratio. Here, a recent leap in MEG technology-featuring a factor 10 reduction in white noise level compared with standard systems-is leveraged to establish an effective single-trial portrayal of evoked cortical population spike bursts in healthy human subjects. This time-resolved approach proved instrumental in revealing a significant trial-to-trial variability of burst amplitudes as well as time-correlated (∼10 s) fluctuations of burst response latencies. Thus, ultralow-noise MEG enables noninvasive single-trial analyses of human cortical population spikes concurrent with low-frequency mass postsynaptic activity and thereby could comprehensively characterize cortical processing, potentially also in diseases not amenable to invasive microelectrode recordings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Waterstraat
- Neurophysics Group, Department of Neurology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 12203 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Rainer Körber
- Department of Biosignals, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan-Hendrik Storm
- Department of Biosignals, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriel Curio
- Neurophysics Group, Department of Neurology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 12203 Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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11
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Chivukula S, Zhang CY, Aflalo T, Jafari M, Pejsa K, Pouratian N, Andersen RA. Neural encoding of actual and imagined touch within human posterior parietal cortex. eLife 2021; 10:61646. [PMID: 33647233 PMCID: PMC7924956 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In the human posterior parietal cortex (PPC), single units encode high-dimensional information with partially mixed representations that enable small populations of neurons to encode many variables relevant to movement planning, execution, cognition, and perception. Here, we test whether a PPC neuronal population previously demonstrated to encode visual and motor information is similarly engaged in the somatosensory domain. We recorded neurons within the PPC of a human clinical trial participant during actual touch presentation and during a tactile imagery task. Neurons encoded actual touch at short latency with bilateral receptive fields, organized by body part, and covered all tested regions. The tactile imagery task evoked body part-specific responses that shared a neural substrate with actual touch. Our results are the first neuron-level evidence of touch encoding in human PPC and its cognitive engagement during a tactile imagery task, which may reflect semantic processing, attention, sensory anticipation, or imagined touch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivas Chivukula
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Carey Y Zhang
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States
| | - Tyson Aflalo
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States
| | - Matiar Jafari
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Kelsie Pejsa
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States
| | - Nader Pouratian
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Richard A Andersen
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States,Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Brain-Machine Interface Center, Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of TechnologyPasadenaUnited States
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12
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Zacharopoulos G, Hertz U, Kanai R, Bahrami B. The effect of feedback valence and source on perception and metacognition: An fMRI investigation. Cogn Neurosci 2020; 13:38-46. [PMID: 33356883 DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2020.1828323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Receiving feedback from our environment that informs us about the outcomes of our actions helps us assess our abilities (e.g., metacognition) and to flexibly adapt our behavior, consequently increasing our chances of success. However, a detailed examination of the effect of feedback on the brain activation during perceptual and confidence judgments as well as the interrelations between perceptual accuracy, prospective and retrospective confidence remains unclear. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the neural response to feedback valence and source in visual contrast discrimination together with prospective confidence judgments at the beginning of each block and retrospective confidence judgments after every decision. Positive feedback was associated with higher activation (or lower deactivation depending on the area) in areas previously involved in attention, performance monitoring and visual regions during the perceptual judgment than during the confidence judgment. Changes in prospective confidence were positively related to changes in perceptual accuracy as well as to the corresponding retrospective confidence. Thus, feedback information impacted multiple, qualitatively different brain processing states, and we also revealed the dynamic interplay between prospective, perceptual accuracy and retrospective self-assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Uri Hertz
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ryota Kanai
- Basic Research Group, Araya Inc., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Bahador Bahrami
- Department of Psychology and Education, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany.,Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, UK.,Centre for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
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