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Matsushima T, Izumi T, Vallortigara G. The domestic chick as an animal model of autism spectrum disorder: building adaptive social perceptions through prenatally formed predispositions. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1279947. [PMID: 38356650 PMCID: PMC10864568 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1279947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Equipped with an early social predisposition immediately post-birth, humans typically form associations with mothers and other family members through exposure learning, canalized by a prenatally formed predisposition of visual preference to biological motion, face configuration, and other cues of animacy. If impaired, reduced preferences can lead to social interaction impairments such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) via misguided canalization. Despite being taxonomically distant, domestic chicks could also follow a homologous developmental trajectory toward adaptive socialization through imprinting, which is guided via predisposed preferences similar to those of humans, thereby suggesting that chicks are a valid animal model of ASD. In addition to the phenotypic similarities in predisposition with human newborns, accumulating evidence on the responsible molecular mechanisms suggests the construct validity of the chick model. Considering the recent progress in the evo-devo studies in vertebrates, we reviewed the advantages and limitations of the chick model of developmental mental diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiya Matsushima
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Health Science University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Japan
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Takeshi Izumi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Health Science University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Japan
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2
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Mota-Rojas D, Marcet-Rius M, Domínguez-Oliva A, Buenhombre J, Daza-Cardona EA, Lezama-García K, Olmos-Hernández A, Verduzco-Mendoza A, Bienboire-Frosini C. Parental behavior and newborn attachment in birds: life history traits and endocrine responses. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1183554. [PMID: 37599744 PMCID: PMC10434784 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1183554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In birds, parental care and attachment period differ widely depending on the species (altricial or precocial), developmental strategies, and life history traits. In most bird species, parental care can be provided by both female and male individuals and includes specific stages such as nesting, laying, and hatching. During said periods, a series of neuroendocrine responses are triggered to motivate parental care and attachment. These behaviors are vital for offspring survival, development, social bonding, intergenerational learning, reproductive success, and ultimately, the overall fitness and evolution of bird populations in a variety of environments. Thus, this review aims to describe and analyze the behavioral and endocrine systems of parental care and newborn attachment in birds during each stage of the post-hatching period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Míriam Marcet-Rius
- Department of Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Research Institute in Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology, Apt, France
| | - Adriana Domínguez-Oliva
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jhon Buenhombre
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Antonio Nariño University, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Karina Lezama-García
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Adriana Olmos-Hernández
- Division of Biotechnology—Bioterio and Experimental Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación-Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Antonio Verduzco-Mendoza
- Division of Biotechnology—Bioterio and Experimental Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación-Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Cécile Bienboire-Frosini
- Department of Molecular Biology and Chemical Communication, Research Institute in Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology, Apt, France
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3
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Pilgeram NR, Baran NM, Bhise A, Davis MT, Iverson ENK, Kim E, Lee S, Rodriguez-Saltos CA, Maney DL. Oxytocin receptor antagonism during early vocal learning reduces song preference and imitation in zebra finches. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6627. [PMID: 37188684 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33340-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In species with vocal learning, acquiring species-typical vocalizations relies on early social orienting. In songbirds, for example, learning song requires dynamic social interactions with a "tutor" during an early sensitive period. Here, we hypothesized that the attentional and motivational processes that support song learning recruit the oxytocin system, which is well-understood to play a role in social orienting in other species. Juvenile male zebra finches naïve to song were each tutored by two unfamiliar adult males. Before exposure to one tutor, juveniles were injected subcutaneously with oxytocin receptor antagonist (OTA; ornithine vasotocin) and before exposure to the other, saline (control). Treatment with OTA reduced behaviors associated with approach and attention during tutoring sessions. Using a novel operant paradigm to measure preference while balancing exposure to the two tutor songs, we showed that the juveniles preferred to hear the song of the control tutor. Their adult songs more closely resembled the control tutor's song, and the magnitude of this difference was predicted by early preference for control over OTA song. Overall, oxytocin antagonism during exposure to a tutor seemed to bias juveniles against that tutor and his song. Our results suggest that oxytocin receptors are important for socially-guided vocal learning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole M Baran
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Aditya Bhise
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew T Davis
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Erik N K Iverson
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Emily Kim
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sumin Lee
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Carlos A Rodriguez-Saltos
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, USA
| | - Donna L Maney
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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4
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Trigo S, Silva PA, Cardoso GC, Soares MC. Effects of mesotocin manipulation on the behavior of male and female common waxbills. Physiol Behav 2023; 267:114226. [PMID: 37150430 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The oxytocin family of neuropeptides is implicated in the regulation of sociality across vertebrates. Non-mammalian homologs of oxytocin, such as isotocin in fish and mesotocin in amphibians, reptiles and birds, all play crucial roles modulating social and reproductive behavior. In this study, we exogenously manipulated the mesotocinergic system in a highly social bird, the common waxbill Estrild astrild, and tested the effects on affiliative and aggressive behavior by performing tests of competition over food. Birds treated with mesotocin showed a sedative state, decreasing almost all the behaviors we studied (movement, feeding, allopreening), while birds treated with an oxytocin antagonist showed a decrease only in social behaviors (aggressions and allopreening). We also found two sex-specific effects: mesotocin reduced allopreening more in males than females, and the oxytocin antagonist reduced aggressiveness only in females. Our results suggest sex-specific effects in the modulation of affiliative and aggressive behaviors via mesotocinergic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Trigo
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal.
| | - Paulo A Silva
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal.
| | - Gonçalo C Cardoso
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal.
| | - Marta C Soares
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre / ARNET - Aquatic Research Network, Institute for Research and Advanced Training (IIFA), University of Évora, 7002-554, Évora, Portugal.
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5
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Rodríguez-Saltos CA, Bhise A, Karur P, Khan RN, Lee S, Ramsay G, Maney DL. Song preferences predict the quality of vocal learning in zebra finches. Sci Rep 2023; 13:605. [PMID: 36635470 PMCID: PMC9837092 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27708-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In songbirds, learning to sing is a highly social process that likely involves social reward. Here, we tested the hypothesis that during song learning, the reward value of hearing a particular song predicts the degree to which that song will ultimately be learned. We measured the early song preferences of young male zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) in an operant key-pressing assay; each of two keys was associated with a higher likelihood of playing the song of the father or that of another familiar adult ("neighbor"). To minimize the effects of exposure on learning, we implemented a novel reinforcement schedule that allowed us to detect preferences while balancing exposure to each song. On average, the juveniles significantly preferred the father's song early during song learning, before actual singing occurs in this species. When they reached adulthood, all the birds copied the father's song. The accuracy with which the father's song was imitated was positively correlated with the peak strength of the preference for the father's song during the sensitive period of song learning. Our results show that preference for the song of a chosen tutor, in this case the father, predicted vocal learning during development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aditya Bhise
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Prasanna Karur
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Ramsha Nabihah Khan
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Sumin Lee
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Gordon Ramsay
- Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Donna L Maney
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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Life is in motion (through a chick's eye). Anim Cogn 2023; 26:129-140. [PMID: 36222937 PMCID: PMC9877072 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01703-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive scientists, social psychologists, computer scientists, neuroscientists, ethologists and many others have all wondered how brains detect and interpret the motion of living organisms. It appears that specific cues, incorporated into our brains by natural selection, serve to signal the presence of living organisms. A simple geometric figure such as a triangle put in motion with specific kinematic rules can look alive, and it can even seem to have intentions and goals. In this article, we survey decades of parallel investigations on the motion cues that drive animacy perception-the sensation that something is alive-in non-human animals, especially in precocial species, such as the domestic chick, to identify inborn biological predispositions. At the same time, we highlight the relevance of these studies for an understanding of human typical and atypical cognitive development.
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Zablocki-Thomas PB, Rogers FD, Bales KL. Neuroimaging of human and non-human animal emotion and affect in the context of social relationships. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:994504. [PMID: 36338883 PMCID: PMC9633678 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.994504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term relationships are essential for the psychological wellbeing of humans and many animals. Positive emotions and affective experiences (e.g., romantic or platonic love) seem to be closely related to the creation and maintenance of social bonds. When relationships are threatened or terminated, other emotions generally considered to be negative can arise (e.g., jealousy or loneliness). Because humans and animals share (to varying degrees) common evolutionary histories, researchers have attempted to explain the evolution of affect and emotion through the comparative approach. Now brain imaging techniques allow the comparison of the neurobiological substrates of affective states and emotion in human and animal brains using a common methodology. Here, we review brain imaging studies that feature emotions characterized by the context of social bonding. We compare imaging findings associated with affective and emotional states elicited by similar social situations between humans and animal models. We also highlight the role of key neurohormones (i.e., oxytocin, vasopressin, and dopamine) that jointly support the occurrence of socially contextualized emotions and affect across species. In doing so, we seek to explore and clarify if and how humans and animals might similarly experience social emotion and affect in the context of social relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline B. Zablocki-Thomas
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Pauline B. Zablocki-Thomas,
| | - Forrest D. Rogers
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Psychology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Karen L. Bales
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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8
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Adiletta A, Pross A, Taricco N, Sgadò P. Embryonic Valproate Exposure Alters Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons Distribution and Septal Dopaminergic Gene Expression in Domestic Chicks. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:804881. [PMID: 35369647 PMCID: PMC8966611 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.804881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the role of the dopaminergic system in the regulation of social behavior is being progressively outlined, and dysfunctions of the dopaminergic system are increasingly associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To study the role of the dopaminergic (DA) system in an animal model of ASD, we investigated the effects of embryonic exposure to valproic acid (VPA) on the postnatal development of the mesencephalic DA system in the domestic chick. We found that VPA affected the rostro-caudal distribution of DA neurons, without changing the expression levels of several dopaminergic markers in the mesencephalon. We also investigated a potential consequence of this altered DA neuronal distribution in the septum, a social brain area previously associated to social behavior in several vertebrate species, describing alterations in the expression of genes linked to DA neurotransmission. These findings support the emerging hypothesis of a role of DA dysfunction in ASD pathogenesis. Together with previous studies showing impairments of early social orienting behavior, these data also support the use of the domestic chick model to investigate the neurobiological mechanisms potentially involved in early ASD symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Adiletta
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Alessandra Pross
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
- Lleida’s Institute for Biomedical Research Dr. Pifarre Foundation (IRBLleida), Lleida, Spain
| | - Nicolò Taricco
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Paola Sgadò
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
- *Correspondence: Paola Sgadò,
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9
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Davis MT, Grogan KE, Fraccaroli I, Libecap TJ, Pilgeram NR, Maney DL. Expression of oxytocin receptors in the zebra finch brain during vocal development. Dev Neurobiol 2022; 82:3-15. [PMID: 34562056 PMCID: PMC8795483 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Like human language, song in songbirds is learned during an early sensitive period and is facilitated by motivation to seek out social interactions with vocalizing adults. Songbirds are therefore powerful models with which to understand the neural underpinnings of vocal learning. Social motivation and early social orienting are thought to be mediated by the oxytocin system; however, the developmental trajectory of oxytocin receptors in songbirds, particularly as it relates to song learning, is currently unknown. This gap in knowledge has hindered the development of songbirds as a model of the role of social orienting in vocal learning. In this study, we used quantitative PCR to measure oxytocin receptor expression during the sensitive period of song learning in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). We focused on brain regions important for social motivation, attachment, song recognition, and song learning. We detected expression in these regions in both sexes from posthatch day 5 to adulthood, encompassing the entire period of song learning. In this species, only males sing; we found that in regions implicated in song learning specifically, oxytocin receptor mRNA expression was higher in males than females. These sex differences were largest during the developmental phase when males attend to and memorize tutor song, suggesting a functional role of expression in learning. Our results show that oxytocin receptors are expressed in relevant brain regions during song learning, and thus provide a foundation for developing the zebra finch as a model for understanding the mechanisms underlying the role of social motivation in vocal development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Donna L. Maney
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
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10
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Rosa-Salva O, Mayer U, Versace E, Hébert M, Lemaire BS, Vallortigara G. Sensitive periods for social development: Interactions between predisposed and learned mechanisms. Cognition 2021; 213:104552. [PMID: 33402251 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We analysed research that makes use of precocial species as animal models to describe the interaction of predisposed mechanisms and environmental factors in early learning, in particular for the development of social cognition. We also highlight the role of sensitive periods in this interaction, focusing on domestic chicks as one of the main animal models for this field. In the first section of the review, we focus on the emergence of early predispositions to attend to social partners. These attentional biases appear before any learning experience about social stimuli. However, non-specific experiences occurring during sensitive periods of the early post-natal life determine the emergence of these predisposed mechanisms for the detection of social partners. Social predispositions have an important role for the development learning-based social cognitive functions, showing the interdependence of predisposed and learned mechanisms in shaping social development. In the second part of the review we concentrate on the reciprocal interactions between filial imprinting and spontaneous (not learned) social predispositions. Reciprocal influences between these two sets of mechanisms ensure that, in the natural environment, filial imprinting will target appropriate social objects. Neural and physiological mechanisms regulating the sensitive periods for the emergence of social predispositions and for filial imprinting learning are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsola Rosa-Salva
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Uwe Mayer
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Versace
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy; Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, 327 Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Hébert
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Bastien S Lemaire
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy.
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Lemche E. Research evidence from studies on filial imprinting, attachment, and early life stress: a new route for scientific integration. Acta Ethol 2020; 23:127-133. [PMID: 33122872 PMCID: PMC7584526 DOI: 10.1007/s10211-020-00346-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Attachment is a concept that was developed and researched in developmental psychology in uptake of findings on filial imprinting from ethology. In the present period, however, attachment concepts are increasingly applied to and investigated in animal research, thereby translating back criteria that were established for human infants. It herein appears that findings on filial imprinting are becoming more and more forgotten, whilst basic findings in human infants are not reflected in investigations on attachment in animals. To re-integrate both domains, the present article undertakes the effort in briefly reviewing and recapitulating basic findings in human attachment and recent research on filial imprinting. In specific, replicated were critical roles of the conversion of thyroid prohormone by 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio2) into triiodothyronine (T3) in the regulation of the timing of imprinting learning. Because of the interactions of T3 with oxytocinergic and dopaminergic neurones of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, these findings provide new neuroendocrinological insight for possible relations with both attachment and metabolic sequelae of early life stress. Necessary is a mutual integration of all recent advances in the yet separated fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin Lemche
- Section of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry and Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, SE5 8AF UK
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