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Takai S, Suzuki Y, Sasaki Y, Kakuda T, Ribeiro MG, Makrai L, Witkowski L, Cohen N, Sekizaki T. Short review: Geographical distribution of equine-associated pVAPA plasmids in Rhodococcus equi in the world. Vet Microbiol 2023; 287:109919. [PMID: 38000208 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2023.109919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
Virulent Rhodococcus equi strains expressing virulence-associated 15-17 kDa protein (VapA) and having a large virulence plasmid (pVAPA) of 85-90 kb containing vapA gene are pathogenic for horses. In the last two decades, following pVAPA, two host-associated virulence plasmid types of R. equi have been discovered: a circular plasmid, pVAPB, associated with porcine isolates in 1995, and a recently detected linear plasmid, pVAPN, related to bovine and caprine isolates. Molecular epidemiological studies of R. equi infection in foals on horse-breeding farms in Japan and many countries around the world have been conducted in the last three decades, and the epidemiological studies using restriction enzyme digestion patterns of plasmid DNAs from virulent isolates have shown 14 distinct pVAPA subtypes and their geographical preference. This short review summarizes previous reports regarding equine-associated pVAPA subtypes in the world and discusses their geographic distribution from the standpoint of horse movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Takai
- Department of Animal Hygiene, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori 034-8628, Japan.
| | - Yasunori Suzuki
- Department of Animal Hygiene, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori 034-8628, Japan
| | - Yukako Sasaki
- Department of Animal Hygiene, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori 034-8628, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Kakuda
- Department of Animal Hygiene, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori 034-8628, Japan
| | - Márcio Garcia Ribeiro
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, UNESP-São Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - László Makrai
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University, Hungária krt. 23-25, H-1143 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Lucjan Witkowski
- Laboratory of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Noah Cohen
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Tsutomu Sekizaki
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Rocha JN, Dangott LJ, Mwangi W, Alaniz RC, Bordin AI, Cywes-Bentley C, Lawhon SD, Pillai SD, Bray JM, Pier GB, Cohen ND. PNAG-specific equine IgG 1 mediates significantly greater opsonization and killing of Prescottella equi (formerly Rhodococcus equi) than does IgG 4/7. Vaccine 2019; 37:1142-1150. [PMID: 30691984 PMCID: PMC8314964 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Prescottella equi (formerly Rhodococcus equi) is a facultative intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes severe pneumonia in foals 1-6 months of age, whereas adult horses are highly resistant to infection. We have shown that vaccinating pregnant mares against the conserved surface polysaccharide capsule, β-1 → 6-linked poly-N-acetyl glucosamine (PNAG), elicits opsonic killing antibody that transfers via colostrum to foals and protects them against experimental infection with virulent. R. equi. We hypothesized that equine IgG1 might be more important than IgG4/7 for mediating protection against R. equi infection in foals. To test this hypothesis, we compared complement component 1 (C1) deposition and polymorphonuclear cell-mediated opsonophagocytic killing (OPK) mediated by IgG1 or IgG4/7 enriched from either PNAG hyperimmune plasma (HIP) or standard plasma. Subclasses IgG1 and IgG4/7 from PNAG HIP and standard plasma were precipitated onto a diethylaminoethyl ion exchange column, then further enriched using a protein G Sepharose column. We determined C1 deposition by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and estimated OPK by quantitative microbiologic culture. Anti-PNAG IgG1 deposited significantly (P < 0.05) more C1 onto PNAG than did IgG4/7 from PNAG HIP or subclasses IgG1 and IgG4/7 from standard plasma. In addition, IgG1 from PNAG HIP mediated significantly (P < 0.05) greater OPK than IgG4/7 from PNAG HIP or IgG1 and IgG4/7 from standard plasma. Our findings indicate that anti-PNAG IgG1 is a correlate of protection against R. equi in foals, which has important implications for understanding the immunopathogenesis of R. equi pneumonia, and as a tool for assessing vaccine efficacy and effectiveness when challenge is not feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana N Rocha
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843-4475, United States.
| | - Lawrence J Dangott
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory, Texas A&M University, 300 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843, United States.
| | - Waithaka Mwangi
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, 1800 Denison Ave, Manhattan, KS 66506, United States.
| | - Robert C Alaniz
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M University Health and Science Center, 206 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77845, United States.
| | - Angela I Bordin
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843-4475, United States.
| | - Colette Cywes-Bentley
- Harvard Medical School, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 181 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
| | - Sara D Lawhon
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843-4475, United States.
| | - Suresh D Pillai
- National Center for Electron Beam Research-IAEA Collaborative Centre for Electron Beam Technology, Texas A&M University, 400 Discovery Dr, College Station, TX 77845, United States.
| | - Jocelyne M Bray
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843-4475, United States
| | - Gerald B Pier
- Harvard Medical School, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 181 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
| | - Noah D Cohen
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843-4475, United States.
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Genomic Dissection of an Icelandic Epidemic of Respiratory Disease in Horses and Associated Zoonotic Cases. mBio 2017; 8:mBio.00826-17. [PMID: 28765219 PMCID: PMC5539424 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00826-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Iceland is free of the major infectious diseases of horses. However, in 2010 an epidemic of respiratory disease of unknown cause spread through the country’s native horse population of 77,000. Microbiological investigations ruled out known viral agents but identified the opportunistic pathogen Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) in diseased animals. We sequenced the genomes of 257 isolates of S. zooepidemicus to differentiate epidemic from endemic strains. We found that although multiple endemic clones of S. zooepidemicus were present, one particular clone, sequence type 209 (ST209), was likely to have been responsible for the epidemic. Concurrent with the epidemic, ST209 was also recovered from a human case of septicemia, highlighting the pathogenic potential of this strain. Epidemiological investigation revealed that the incursion of this strain into one training yard during February 2010 provided a nidus for the infection of multiple horses that then transmitted the strain to farms throughout Iceland. This study represents the first time that whole-genome sequencing has been used to investigate an epidemic on a national scale to identify the likely causative agent and the link to an associated zoonotic infection. Our data highlight the importance of national biosecurity to protect vulnerable populations of animals and also demonstrate the potential impact of S. zooepidemicus transmission to other animals, including humans. An epidemic of respiratory disease affected almost the entire native Icelandic horse population of 77,000 animals in 2010, resulting in a self-imposed ban on the export of horses and significant economic costs to associated industries. Although the speed of transmission suggested that a viral pathogen was responsible, only the presence of the opportunistic pathogen Streptococcus zooepidemicus was consistent with the observed clinical signs. We applied genomic sequencing to differentiate epidemic from endemic strains and to shed light on the rapid transmission of the epidemic strain throughout Iceland. We further highlight the ability of epidemic and endemic strains of S. zooepidemicus to infect other animals, including humans. This study represents the first time that whole-genome sequencing has been used to elucidate an outbreak on a national scale and identify the likely causative agent.
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Tirosh-Levy S, Gürbilek SE, Tel OY, Keskin O, Steinman A. Seroprevalence of Rhodococcus equi in horses in Israel. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2017; 88:e1-e6. [PMID: 28697612 PMCID: PMC6138172 DOI: 10.4102/jsava.v88i0.1508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi is a common cause of pneumonia in foals and has extensive clinical, economic and possibly zoonotic consequences. This bacterium survives well in the environment and may be considered as normal flora of adult horses. Certain strains of this bacterium are extremely virulent in foals, and early identification and intervention is crucial for prognosis. Rhodococcus equi is endemic in many parts of the world and occasionally isolated in Israel. This study was designed to evaluate R. equi seroprevalence in adult horses in Israel to indirectly indicate the potential level of exposure of susceptible foals. Sera were collected from 144 horses during spring 2011 and from 293 horses during fall 2014, and the presence of antibodies against virulent R. equi was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Equine seroprevalence of R. equi was found to be 7.6% in 2011 and 5.1% in 2014. Only one farm had seropositive horses in 2011, whereas several farms had seropositive horses in 2014. No significant risk factors for seropositivity were found. Rhodococcus equi appears to be endemic in Israel. This is the first survey of R. equi in Israel that provides information on the epidemiology of this important bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Tirosh-Levy
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
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Johns I. Prevention and treatment of
Rhodococcus equi
infection in foals: an update. IN PRACTICE 2016. [DOI: 10.1136/inp.i4665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Sanz MG, Loynachan A, Horohov DW. Rhodococcus equi hyperimmune plasma decreases pneumonia severity after a randomised experimental challenge of neonatal foals. Vet Rec 2016; 178:261. [PMID: 26932206 DOI: 10.1136/vr.103095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Since a vaccine is not available against Rhodococcus equi, R equi-specific hyperimmune plasma (HIP) is commonly used, although its efficacy remains controversial. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of a commercially available HIP to prevent clinical rhodococcal pneumonia in neonatal foals after experimental challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Sanz
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - A Loynachan
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - D W Horohov
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
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Rocha JN, Cohen ND, Bordin AI, Brake CN, Giguère S, Coleman MC, Alaniz RC, Lawhon SD, Mwangi W, Pillai SD. Oral Administration of Electron-Beam Inactivated Rhodococcus equi Failed to Protect Foals against Intrabronchial Infection with Live, Virulent R. equi. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148111. [PMID: 26828865 PMCID: PMC4735123 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is currently no licensed vaccine that protects foals against Rhodococcus equi–induced pneumonia. Oral administration of live, virulent R. equi to neonatal foals has been demonstrated to protect against subsequent intrabronchial challenge with virulent R. equi. Electron beam (eBeam)-inactivated R. equi are structurally intact and have been demonstrated to be immunogenic when administered orally to neonatal foals. Thus, we investigated whether eBeam inactivated R. equi could protect foals against developing pneumonia after experimental infection with live, virulent R. equi. Foals (n = 8) were vaccinated by gavaging with eBeam-inactivated R. equi at ages 2, 7, and 14 days, or gavaged with equal volume of saline solution (n = 4), and subsequently infected intrabronchially with live, virulent R. equi at age 21 days. The proportion of vaccinated foals that developed pneumonia following challenge was similar among the vaccinated (7/8; 88%) and unvaccinated foals (3/4; 75%). This vaccination regimen did not appear to be strongly immunogenic in foals. Alternative dosing regimens or routes of administration need further investigation and may prove to be immunogenic and protective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana N. Rocha
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4475, United States of America
| | - Noah D. Cohen
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4475, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NDC); (SDP)
| | - Angela I. Bordin
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4475, United States of America
| | - Courtney N. Brake
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4475, United States of America
| | - Steeve Giguère
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602–7385, United States of America
| | - Michelle C. Coleman
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4475, United States of America
| | - Robert C. Alaniz
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, 77843, United States of America
| | - Sara D. Lawhon
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4467, United States of America
| | - Waithaka Mwangi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843–4467, United States of America
| | - Suresh D. Pillai
- National Center for Electron Beam Research–IAEA Collaborative Centre for Electron Beam Technology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NDC); (SDP)
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Wright S. Highlights of recent clinically relevant papers. EQUINE VET EDUC 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Sanz MG, Villarino N, Ferreira-Oliveira A, Horohov DW. VapA-specific IgG and IgG subclasses responses after natural infection and experimental challenge of foals with Rhodococcus equi. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2015; 164:10-5. [PMID: 25681111 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi is a common cause of pneumonia in young foals worldwide and has considerable economic effects on the global equine industry. Despite ongoing efforts, no vaccine is currently available to prevent rhodococaal pneumonia. This is due, in part, to an incomplete understanding of the protective immune response to this bacterium. While antibodies to VapA, a lipoprotein produced by virulent R. equi, are useful in differentiating antibody production in response to pathogenic versus non-pathogenic strains, the significance of the humoral response of foals to this lipoprotein remains poorly defined. The objectives of this study were to evaluate changes in VapA-specific IgG and IgG subclasses after exposure and infection of neonatal foals. Experimental foals included those challenged with R. equi at 1 (n=18), 2 (n=4) and 3 (n=6) weeks of age. Confirmed naturally infected (n=7) and not infected (n=3) foals were also included. All foals were bled 24h after birth and weekly thereafter for a period of 8 weeks. Antibody changes over time were evaluated. Following birth, VapA-specific IgGs significantly (p<0.05) decreased over time in all foals as a result of normal decay of passively transferred antibodies. Both VapA-specific IgGa and IgG(T) significantly increased (p<0.05) after experimental challenge, however, the rise in IgG(T) occurred earlier. Only a significant (p<0.05) increase in VapA-specific IgG(T) over time was seen after natural infection. Whether VapA-specific IgG(T) can be used to differentiate rhodococcal from other pneumonias requires further investigation under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Sanz
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, Kentucky,Lexington, KY 40546-009, United States
| | - N Villarino
- Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA 99164-6610, United States
| | - A Ferreira-Oliveira
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, Kentucky,Lexington, KY 40546-009, United States
| | - D W Horohov
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, Kentucky,Lexington, KY 40546-009, United States.
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