Lifetime reproductive success, selection on lifespan, and multiple sexual ornaments in male European barn swallows

Long-term patterns of forearm asymmetry in females of three syntopic bat species and its effects on individual fitness

Fluctuating asymmetry, the non-directional deviation from bilateral symmetry resulting from developmental instability, can indicate early-life environmental stress. While fluctuating asymmetry can affect individual survival and reproductive success, its effect on fitness differs between species. Here, we analyzed up to 27 years of mark-recapture data from 894 RFID tagged individuals of three forest-living bat species in southern Germany to investigate the degree of fluctuating asymmetry in forearm length. In Bechstein's bats, Myotis bechsteinii, the species with the highest sample size, we furthermore investigated if fluctuating asymmetry has become more frequent over the study period, a time when juvenile bats have grown larger forearms in response to warmer summers. We also investigated whether fluctuating asymmetry affects individual lifespan and lifetime reproductive success in female Myotis bechsteinii. The degree of fluctuating asymmetry clearly exceeding the measurement error estimated on recaptured individuals was similar in all three species (1.8%). In female Myotis bechsteinii, the frequency of fluctuating asymmetry did not increase over the course of the study and even strong asymmetry had no effect on individual reproductive success and life expectancy. Our data suggest that fluctuating asymmetry is a poor predictor of fitness in the female Myotis bechsteinii studied, and is so far unaffected by the warming environment which is leading to larger individuals in our study population.

Age-related changes in sperm traits and evidence for aging costs of sperm production in a sexually promiscuous passerine

In many animal species, organismal performance declines with age in a process known as aging or senescence. Senescence typically leads to a deterioration of physiological functionality and can impact the development of primary sexual phenotypes. Sperm production is a complex and costly process that is sensitive to changes in individual physiological state, yet remarkably little is known about age-related changes in sperm performance and aging costs of sperm production. Here we use a non-linear generalized additive mixed models (GAMM) modelling to evaluate age-related changes in postcopulatory sexual traits in the European barn swallow (Hirundo rustica rustica), a relatively short lived sexually promiscuous passerine species, where male extra-pair fertilization success has been shown to increase with age. We confirmed a positive relationship between sperm midpiece length and sperm velocity in this species. Within-male changes in sperm morphology and sperm velocity were in general absent, with only sperm length decreasing linearly with increasing age, although this change was negligible compared to the overall variation in sperm size among males. In contrast, the cloacal protuberance (CP) size changed nonlinearly with age, with an initial increase between the first and third year of life followed by a plateau. The results further indicate the existence of a trade-off between investments in sperm production and survival as males with large CP tended to have a reduced lifespan. This seems consistent with the idea of expensive sperm production and survival aging costs associated with investments in post-copulatory traits in this sexually promiscuous species.

Telomere length is highly repeatable and shorter in individuals with more elaborate sexual ornamentation in a short-lived passerine

Quantifying an individual's state as a fitness proxy has proven challenging, but accumulating evidence suggests that telomere length and attrition may indicate individual somatic state and success at self-maintenance, respectively. Sexual ornamentation is also thought to signal phenotypic quality, but links between telomeres and sexual ornamentation have been little explored. To address this issue, we examined whether telomere length and dynamics are predicted by the expression of a sexually selected ornament, the length of the outermost tail feathers (streamers), using longitudinal data from a population of European barn swallows (Hirundo rustica). In 139 adult individuals, each measured twice, we further assessed associations of telomere length with age, sex, breeding status and survival. Telomere length showed high individual repeatability (R = .97) across years while shortening with age in both sexes. Telomere length and dynamics were not significantly associated with survival to the next year, remaining lifespan or reproduction status (comparing breeding and nonbreeding yearlings). Tail streamer length, a sexually selected trait in barn swallows, was negatively associated with telomere length, independent of sex. Thus, telomere length may reflect the costs of carrying an elaborated sexual ornament, although ornament size did not significantly predict telomere shortening. In conclusion, telomere length in adult barn swallows is a highly consistent trait that shows a negative relationship with sexual ornamentation, suggesting a trade-off between sexual ornamentation and telomere length.

An evaluation of the potential factors affecting lifetime reproductive success in salmonids

Lifetime reproductive success (LRS), the number of offspring produced over an organism's lifetime, is a fundamental component of Darwinian fitness. For taxa such as salmonids with multiple species of conservation concern, understanding the factors affecting LRS is critical for the development and implementation of successful conservation management practices. Here, we reviewed the published literature to synthesize factors affecting LRS in salmonids including significant effects of hatchery rearing, life history, and phenotypic variation, and behavioral and spawning interactions. Additionally, we found that LRS is affected by competitive behavior on the spawning grounds, genetic compatibility, local adaptation, and hybridization. Our review of existing literature revealed limitations of LRS studies, and we emphasize the following areas that warrant further attention in future research: (1) expanding the range of studies assessing LRS across different life-history strategies, specifically accounting for distinct reproductive and migratory phenotypes; (2) broadening the variety of species represented in salmonid fitness studies; (3) constructing multigenerational pedigrees to track long-term fitness effects; (4) conducting LRS studies that investigate the effects of aquatic stressors, such as anthropogenic effects, pathogens, environmental factors in both freshwater and marine environments, and assessing overall body condition, and (5) utilizing appropriate statistical approaches to determine the factors that explain the greatest variation in fitness and providing information regarding biological significance, power limitations, and potential sources of error in salmonid parentage studies. Overall, this review emphasizes that studies of LRS have profoundly advanced scientific understanding of salmonid fitness, but substantial challenges need to be overcome to assist with long-term recovery of these keystone species in aquatic ecosystems.

Male morphological traits are heritable but do not predict reproductive success in a sexually-dimorphic primate

Sexual selection favours traits that increase reproductive success via increased competitive ability, attractiveness, or both. Male rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) morphological traits are likely to reflect the effects of multiple sexual selection pressures. Here, we use a quantitative genetic approach to investigate the production and maintenance of variation in male rhesus macaque morphometric traits which may be subject to sexual selection. We collected measurements of body size, canine length, and fat, from 125 male and 21 female free-ranging rhesus macaques on Cayo Santiago. We also collected testis volumes from males. We used a genetic pedigree to calculate trait heritability, to investigate potential trait trade-offs, and to estimate selection gradients. We found that variation in most male morphometric traits was heritable, but found no evidence of trait trade-offs nor that traits predicted reproductive success. Our results suggest that male rhesus macaque morphometric traits are either not under selection, or are under mechanisms of sexual selection that we could not test (e.g. balancing selection). In species subject to complex interacting mechanisms of selection, measures of body size, weaponry, and testis volume may not increase reproductive success via easily-testable mechanisms such as linear directional selection.

Selection on multiple sexual signals in two Central and Eastern European populations of the barn swallow

Variation in intensity and targets of sexual selection on multiple traits has been suggested to play a major role in promoting phenotypic differentiation between populations, although the divergence in selection may depend on year, local conditions or age. In this study, we quantified sexual selection for two putative sexual signals across two Central and East European barn swallow (Hirundo rustica rustica) populations from Czech Republic and Romania over multiple years. We then related these differences in selection to variation in sexual characters among barn swallow populations. Our results show that tail length and ventral coloration vary between populations, sexes, and age classes (first-time breeders vs. experienced birds). We found that selection on tail length was stronger in first-time breeders than in experienced birds and in males than in females in the Romanian population, while these differences between age groups and sexes were weak in Czech birds. We suggest that the populational difference in selection on tail length might be related to the differences in breeding conditions. Our results show that ventral coloration is darker (i.e., has lower brightness) in the Romanian than in the Czech population, and in experienced birds and males compared with first-time breeders and females, respectively. The sexual difference in ventral coloration may suggest sexual selection on this trait, which is supported by the significant directional selection of ventral coloration in first-time breeding males on laying date. However, after controlling for the confounding effect of wing length and tarsus length, the partial directional selection gradient on this trait turned nonsignificant, suggesting that the advantage of dark ventral coloration in early breeding birds is determined by the correlated traits of body size. These findings show that ventral coloration may be advantageous over the breeding season, but the underlying mechanism of this relationship is not clarified.

Inter-generational resemblance of methylation levels at circadian genes and associations with phenology in the barn swallow

Regulation of gene expression can occur via epigenetic effects as mediated by DNA methylation. The potential for epigenetic effects to be transmitted across generations, thus modulating phenotypic variation and affecting ecological and evolutionary processes, is increasingly appreciated. However, the study of variation in epigenomes and inter-generational transmission of epigenetic alterations in wild populations is at its very infancy. We studied sex- and age-related variation in DNA methylation and parent-offspring resemblance in methylation profiles in the barn swallows. We focused on a class of highly conserved 'clock' genes (clock, cry1, per2, per3, timeless) relevant in the timing of activities of major ecological importance. In addition, we considerably expanded previous analyses on the relationship between methylation at clock genes and breeding date, a key fitness trait in barn swallows. We found positive assortative mating for methylation at one clock locus. Methylation varied between the nestling and the adult stage, and according to sex. Individuals with relatively high methylation as nestlings also had high methylation levels when adults. Extensive parent-nestling resemblance in methylation levels was observed. Occurrence of extra-pair fertilizations allowed to disclose evidence hinting at a prevalence of paternal germline or sperm quality effects over common environment effects in generating father-offspring resemblance in methylation. Finally, we found an association between methylation at the clock poly-Q region, but not at other loci, and breeding date. We thus provided evidence for sex-dependent variation and the first account of parent-offspring resemblance in methylation in any wild vertebrate. We also showed that epigenetics may influence phenotypic plasticity of timing of life cycle events, thus having a major impact on fitness.