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Li L, Jia F, Li Y, Peng Y. Design strategies and biological applications of β-galactosidase fluorescent sensor in ovarian cancer research and beyond. RSC Adv 2024; 14:3010-3023. [PMID: 38239445 PMCID: PMC10795002 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra07968f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Beta-galactosidase (β-galactosidase), a lysosomal hydrolytic enzyme, plays a critical role in the catalytic hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds, leading to the conversion of lactose into galactose. This hydrolytic enzyme is used as a biomarker in various applications, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), gene expression studies, tuberculosis classification, and in situ hybridization. β-Galactosidase abnormalities are linked to various diseases, such as ganglioside deposition, primary ovarian cancer, and cell senescence. Thus, effective detection of β-galactosidase activity may aid disease diagnoses and treatment. Activatable optical probes with high sensitivity, specificity, and spatiotemporal resolution imaging capabilities have become powerful tools for visualization and real time tracking in vivo in the past decade. This manuscript reviews the sensing mechanism, molecular design strategies, and advances of fluorescence probes in the biological application of β-galactosidase, particularly in the field of ovarian cancer research. Current challenges in tracking β-galactosidase and future directions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangliang Li
- Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital Guangzhou 518000 People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Jia
- Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital Guangzhou 518000 People's Republic of China
| | - Yunxiu Li
- Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital Guangzhou 518000 People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Peng
- Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital Guangzhou 518000 People's Republic of China
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2
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Shan YM, Yu KK, Yu FY, Liu YH, Yu XQ, Li K. Ultrasensitive two-photon probes for rapid detection of β-galactosidase during fruit softening and cellular senescence. Food Chem 2024; 431:137117. [PMID: 37598655 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Senescence is happening in every corner of the living organisms. β-galactosidase (β-gal) is one of the most important biomarkers during senescence in both plant and mammalian cells. Most β-gal fluorescent probes were focused on bio-imaging, only a few probes were developed for the detection of β-gal in fruit, and the probes that could detect β-gal in both fruits and living cells were even less. Here, two β-gal probes (TNap-βGal and TBNap-βGal) were synthesized, which can not only image the increase of β-gal during both fruits softening and cellular senescence, but also prove that bananas are not suitable for storage in refrigerator and the subsequent accumulation of β-gal still in lysosome of mammalian cells. In addition, TNap-βGal was successfully applied to two-photon imaging of endogenous β-gal in both hDPMSCs and tissues of human dental pulp for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Min Shan
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Kang-Kang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| | - Fan-Yuan Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, 610064, China
| | - Yan-Hong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| | - Xiao-Qi Yu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| | - Kun Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
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3
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Liu P, Chen Y, Ma C, Ouyang J, Zheng Z. β-Galactosidase: a traditional enzyme given multiple roles through protein engineering. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-20. [PMID: 38108277 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2292282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
β-Galactosidases are crucial carbohydrate-active enzymes that naturally catalyze the hydrolysis of galactoside bonds in oligo- and disaccharides. These enzymes are commonly used to degrade lactose and produce low-lactose and lactose-free dairy products that are beneficial for lactose-intolerant people. β-galactosidases exhibit transgalactosylation activity, and they have been employed in the synthesis of galactose-containing compounds such as galactooligosaccharides. However, most β-galactosidases have intrinsic limitations, such as low transglycosylation efficiency, significant product inhibition effects, weak thermal stability, and a narrow substrate spectrum, which greatly hinder their applications. Enzyme engineering offers a solution for optimizing their catalytic performance. The study of the enzyme's structure paves the way toward explaining catalytic mechanisms and increasing the efficiency of enzyme engineering. In this review, the structure features of β-galactosidases from different glycosyl hydrolase families and the catalytic mechanisms are summarized in detail to offer guidance for protein engineering. The properties and applications of β-galactosidases are discussed. Additionally, the latest progress in β-galactosidase engineering and the strategies employed are highlighted. Based on the combined analysis of structure information and catalytic mechanisms, the ultimate goal of this review is to furnish a thorough direction for β-galactosidases engineering and promote their application in the food and dairy industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- School of Grain Science and Technology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, People's Republic of China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuehua Chen
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Cuiqing Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia Ouyang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaojuan Zheng
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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4
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Singh RV, Sambyal K. β-galactosidase as an industrial enzyme: production and potential. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-022-02507-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Kataoka M, Kim HW, Ishikawa K. Recognition mechanism of endocellulase for β-glucan containing β(1 → 3),(1 → 4) mixed-linkages. Carbohydr Res 2022; 522:108682. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2022.108682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Structural Analysis and Construction of a Thermostable Antifungal Chitinase. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0065222. [PMID: 35652665 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00652-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitin is a biopolymer of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine with β-1,4-bond and is the main component of arthropod exoskeletons and the cell walls of many fungi. Chitinase (EC 3.2.1.14) is an enzyme that hydrolyzes the β-1,4-bond in chitin and degrades chitin into oligomers. It has been found in a wide range of organisms. Chitinase from Gazyumaru (Ficus microcarpa) latex exhibits antifungal activity by degrading chitin in the cell wall of fungi and is expected to be used in medical and agricultural fields. However, the enzyme's thermostability is an important factor; chitinase is not thermostable enough to maintain its activity under the actual application conditions. In addition to the fact that thermostable chitinases exhibiting antifungal activity can be used under various conditions, they have some advantages for the production process and long-term preservation, which are highly demanded in industrial use. We solved the crystal structure of chitinase to explore the target sites to improve its thermostability. We rationally introduced proline residues, a disulfide bond, and salt bridges in the chitinase using protein-engineering methods based on the crystal structure and sequence alignment among other chitinases. As a result, we successfully constructed the thermostable mutant chitinases rationally with high antifungal and specific activities. The results provide a useful strategy to enhance the thermostability of this enzyme family. IMPORTANCE We solved the crystal structure of the chitinase from Gazyumaru (Ficus microcarpa) latex exhibiting antifungal activity. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the thermostable mutant enzyme with a melting temperature (Tm) 6.9°C higher than wild type (WT) and a half-life at 60°C that is 15 times longer than WT was constructed through 10 amino acid substitutions, including 5 proline residues substitutions, making disulfide bonding, and building a salt bridge network in the enzyme. These mutations do not affect its high antifungal activity and chitinase activity, and the principle for the construction of the thermostable chitinase was well explained by its crystal structure. Our results provide a useful strategy to enhance the thermostability of this enzyme family and to use the thermostable mutant as a seed for antifungal agents for practical use.
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Engineered Glycosidases for the Synthesis of Analogs of Human Milk Oligosaccharides. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23084106. [PMID: 35456924 PMCID: PMC9027921 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymatic synthesis is an elegant biocompatible approach to complex compounds such as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). These compounds are vital for healthy neonatal development with a positive impact on the immune system. Although HMOs may be prepared by glycosyltransferases, this pathway is often complicated by the high price of sugar nucleotides, stringent substrate specificity, and low enzyme stability. Engineered glycosidases (EC 3.2.1) represent a good synthetic alternative, especially if variations in the substrate structure are desired. Site-directed mutagenesis can improve the synthetic process with higher yields and/or increased reaction selectivity. So far, the synthesis of human milk oligosaccharides by glycosidases has mostly been limited to analytical reactions with mass spectrometry detection. The present work reveals the potential of a library of engineered glycosidases in the preparative synthesis of three tetrasaccharides derived from lacto-N-tetraose (Galβ4GlcNAcβ3Galβ4Glc), employing sequential cascade reactions catalyzed by β3-N-acetylhexosaminidase BbhI from Bifidobacterium bifidum, β4-galactosidase BgaD-B from Bacillus circulans, β4-N-acetylgalactosaminidase from Talaromyces flavus, and β3-galactosynthase BgaC from B. circulans. The reaction products were isolated and structurally characterized. This work expands the insight into the multi-step catalysis by glycosidases and shows the path to modified derivatives of complex carbohydrates that cannot be prepared by standard glycosyltransferase methods.
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Xiaowen W, Sibo C, Lin F, Hao L, Si C, Xianfeng Y, Zhoukun L, Zhongli C, Huang Y. Characterization of a halotolerant GH2 family β-galactosidase GalM from Microvirga sp. strain MC18. Protein Expr Purif 2022; 194:106074. [PMID: 35218889 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2022.106074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A new glycoside hydrolase family 2 (GH2) β-galactosidase encoding gene galM was cloned from Microvirga sp. strain MC18 and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant β-galactosidase GalM showed optimal activity at pH 7.0 and 50 °C, with a stability at pH 6.0-9.0 and 20-40 °C, which are conditions suitable for the diary environment. The Km and Vmax values for o-nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside (oNPG) were 1.30 mmol/L and 15.974 μmol/(min·mg), respectively. GalM showed low product inhibition by galactose with a Ki of 73.18 mM and high tolerance for glucose that 86.5% activity retained in the presence of 500 mM glucose. It was also stable and active in 20% of methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. In addition, the enzyme activity of GalM was activated significantly over 0-2 mol/L NaCl (1.6-4.3 fold). These favorable properties make GalM a potential candidate for the industrial application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Xiaowen
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Chen Sibo
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Fan Lin
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Liu Hao
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Chen Si
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Ye Xianfeng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Li Zhoukun
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Cui Zhongli
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China
| | - Yan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, PR China.
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9
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Luan S, Duan X. A Novel Thermal-Activated β-Galactosidase from Bacillus aryabhattai GEL-09 for Lactose Hydrolysis in Milk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11030372. [PMID: 35159524 PMCID: PMC8834341 DOI: 10.3390/foods11030372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
β-Galactosidase has been greatly used in the dairy industry. This study investigated a novel thermostable β-galactosidase (lacZBa) from Bacillus aryabhattai GEL-09 and evaluated the hydrolytic performance of this enzyme. Firstly, the lacZBa-encoding gene was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Phylogenetic analyses revealed that lacZBa belonged to the glycoside hydrolase family 42. Using SDS-PAGE, we determined that the molecular weight of lacZBa was ~75 kDa. Purified lacZBa exhibited a maximum activity at 45 °C, pH 6.0, and could be activated following incubation at 45 °C for several minutes. The half-life of lacZBa at 45 °C and 50 °C was 264 h and 36 h, respectively. While Co2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ enhanced enzymatic activity, Cu2+ and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid inhibited enzymatic activity. Moreover, lacZBa could hydrolyze lactose and oNPG with Km values of 85.09 and 14.38 mM. Molecular docking results revealed that lacZBa efficiently recognized and catalyzed lactose. Additionally, the hydrolysis of lactose by lacZBa was studied in lactose solution and commercial milk. Lactose was completely hydrolyzed within 4 h with 8 U/mL of lacZBa at 45 °C. These results suggested that lacZBa identified in this study has potential applications in the dairy industry.
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10
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Franco YN, Mesa M. Complementary experimental/docking approach for determining chitosan and carboxymethylchitosan ability for the formation of active polymer-β-galactosidase adducts. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 192:736-744. [PMID: 34655585 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The spontaneous aggregation of chitosan and carboxymethylchitosan polymers can be advantageous for the enzyme confinement on these colloidal systems during immobilization processes. The initial crucial step involves the polymer-enzyme adduct formation. The objective here is to determine the interactions that drive the adduct formation between these polymers and β-galactosidase from Bacillus circulans. The chemical characterization of chitosan and its carboxymethyl-derivate allowed to explain their colloidal behavior and design the four-unit fragments ligands used for the docking study. The deacetylation degree (0.6 times lower), isoelectric point (5.2 instead 6.4) and substitution degree (DSO = 1.779 and DS2N = 0.441) of carboxymenthylchitosan are due to the hydroxide concentration (>25%) and 30 °C modification conditions. Favorable Van der Waals and H-bond interactions between chitosan-β-galactosidase and contribution of electrostatic attraction mediated by calcium ions for carboxymethylchitosan-β-galactosidase explained the zeta potential and dynamic light scattering results at pH 7.0. These interactions occur onto the external surface of this galactosidase, without affecting the catalytic activity. A cross-linked enzyme aggregates-type model was proposed for the formation of the adducts, based on the complementary experimental-docking results. They contribute understanding the behavior of polyelectrolyte chitosan-derived matrices for enzyme immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y N Franco
- Materials Science Group, Institute of Chemistry, University of Antioquia, Calle 70 #52-21, AA 1226 Medellín, Colombia
| | - M Mesa
- Materials Science Group, Institute of Chemistry, University of Antioquia, Calle 70 #52-21, AA 1226 Medellín, Colombia.
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Structural and biochemical basis of a marine bacterial glycoside hydrolase family 2 β-glycosidase with broad substrate specificity. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 88:e0222621. [PMID: 34818100 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02226-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Uronic acids are commonly found in marine polysaccharides and increase structural complexity sanand intrinsic recalcitrance to enzymatic attack. The glycoside hydrolase family 2 (GH2) include proteins that target sugar conjugates with hexuronates and are involved in the catabolism and cycling of marine polysaccharides. Here, we reported a novel GH2, AqGalA from a marine algae-associated Bacteroidetes with broad-substrate specificity. Biochemical analyses revealed that AqGalA exhibits hydrolyzing activities against β-galacturonide, β-glucuronide, and β-galactopyranoside via retaining mechanisms. We solved the AqGalA crystal structure in complex with galacturonic acid (GalA) and showed (via mutagenesis) that charge characteristics at uronate-binding subsites controlled substrate selectivity for uronide hydrolysis. Additionally, conformational flexibility of the AqGalA active site pocket was proposed as a key component for broad substrate enzyme selectivity. Our AqGalA structural and functional data augments the current understanding of substrate recognition of GH2 enzymes and provided key insights into the bacterial use of uronic acid containing polysaccharides. IMPORTANCE The decomposition of algal glycans driven by marine bacterial communities represents one of the largest heterotrophic transformation of organic matter fueling marine food webs and global carbon cycling. However, our knowledge of the carbohydrate cycling is limited due to structural complexity of marine polysaccharides and the complicated enzymatic machinery of marine microbes. To degrade algal glycan, marine bacteria such as members of Bacteroidetes produce a complex repertoire of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) matching the structural specificity of the different carbohydrates. In this study, we investigated an extracellular GH2 β-glycosidase, AqGalA from a marine Bacteroidetes to identify the key components responsible for glycuronides recognition and hydrolysis. The broad substrate specificity of AqGalA against glycosides with diverse stereochemical substitutions indicates its potential in processing complex marine polysaccharides. Our findings promote a better understanding of microbially-driven mechanisms of marine carbohydrate cycling.
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Hovorková M, Kulik N, Konvalinková D, Petrásková L, Křen V, Bojarová P. Mutagenesis of Catalytic Nucleophile of β‐Galactosidase Retains Residual Hydrolytic Activity and Affords a Transgalactosidase. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202101107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Hovorková
- Laboratory of Biotransformation Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 CZ-14220 Prague 4 Czech Republic
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology Faculty of Science Charles University Viničná 5 CZ-12843 Prague 2 Czech Republic
| | - Natalia Kulik
- Center for Nanobiology and Structural Biology Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Zámek 136 CZ-37333 Nové Hrady Czech Republic
| | - Dorota Konvalinková
- Laboratory of Biotransformation Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 CZ-14220 Prague 4 Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Petrásková
- Laboratory of Biotransformation Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 CZ-14220 Prague 4 Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Křen
- Laboratory of Biotransformation Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 CZ-14220 Prague 4 Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Bojarová
- Laboratory of Biotransformation Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 CZ-14220 Prague 4 Czech Republic
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Karimi Alavijeh M, Meyer AS, Gras SL, Kentish SE. Synthesis of N-Acetyllactosamine and N-Acetyllactosamine-Based Bioactives. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:7501-7525. [PMID: 34152750 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
N-Acetyllactosamine (LacNAc) or more specifically β-d-galactopyranosyl-1,4-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine is a unique acyl-amino sugar and a key structural unit in human milk oligosaccharides, an antigen component of many glycoproteins, and an antiviral active component for the development of effective drugs against viruses. LacNAc is useful itself and as a basic building block for producing various bioactive oligosaccharides, notably because this synthesis may be used to add value to dairy lactose. Despite a significant amount of information in the literature on the benefits, structures, and types of different LacNAc-derived oligosaccharides, knowledge about their effective synthesis for large-scale production is still in its infancy. This work provides a comprehensive analysis of existing production strategies for LacNAc and important LacNAc-based structures, including sialylated LacNAc as well as poly- and oligo-LacNAc. We conclude that direct extraction from milk is too complex, while chemical synthesis is also impractical at an industrial scale. Microbial routes have application when multiple step reactions are needed, but the major route to large-scale biochemical production will likely lie with enzymatic routes, particularly those using β-galactosidases (for LacNAc synthesis), sialidases (for sialylated LacNAc synthesis), and β-N-acetylhexosaminidases (for oligo-LacNAc synthesis). Glycosyltransferases, especially for the biosynthesis of extended complex LacNAc structures, could also play a major role in the future. In these cases, immobilization of the enzyme can increase stability and reduce cost. Processing parameters, such as substrate concentration and purity, acceptor/donor ratio, water activity, and temperature, can affect product selectivity and yield. More work is needed to optimize these reaction parameters and in the development of robust, thermally stable enzymes to facilitate commercial production of these important bioactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Karimi Alavijeh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - A S Meyer
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology Division, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - S L Gras
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - S E Kentish
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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14
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Evaluation of temperature, pH and nutrient conditions in bacterial growth and extracellular hydrolytic activities of two Alicyclobacillus spp. strains. Arch Microbiol 2021; 203:4557-4570. [PMID: 34159433 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-021-02332-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Extremophile bacteria have developed the metabolic machinery for living in extreme temperatures, pH, and high-salt content. Two novel bacterium strains Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1 and Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2, were isolated from crater lake El Chichon in Chiapas, Mexico. Phylogenetic tree analysis based on the 16SrRNA gene sequence revealed that the strain Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1 and Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2 were closely related to Alicyclobacillus species (98% identity and 94.73% identity, respectively). Both strains were Gram variable, and colonies were circular, smooth and creamy. Electron microscopy showed than Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1 has a daisy-like form and Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2 is a regular rod. Both strains can use diverse carbohydrates and triglycerides as carbon source and they also can use organic and inorganic nitrogen source. But, the two strains can grow without any carbon or nitrogen sources in the culture medium. Temperature, pH and nutrition condition affect bacterial growth. Maximum growth was produced at 65 °C for Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1 (0.732 DO600) at pH 3 and Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2 (0.725 DO600) at pH 5. Inducible extracellular extremozyme activities were determined for β-galactosidase (Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1: 88.07 ± 0.252 U/mg, Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2: 51.57 ± 0.308 U/mg), cellulose (Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1: 141.20 ± 0.585 U/mg, Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2: 51.57 ± 0.308 U/mg), lipase (Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1: 138.25 ± 0.600 U/mg, Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2: 175.75 ± 1.387 U/mg), xylanase (Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1: 174.72 ± 1.746 U/mg, Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2: 172.69 ± 0.855U/mg), and protease (Alicyclobacillus sp. PA1: 15.12 ± 0.121 U/mg, Alicyclobacillus sp. PA2: 15.33 ± 0.284 U/mg). These results provide new insights on extreme enzymatic production on Alicyclobacillus species.
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Movahedpour A, Ahmadi N, Ghalamfarsa F, Ghesmati Z, Khalifeh M, Maleksabet A, Shabaninejad Z, Taheri-Anganeh M, Savardashtaki A. β-Galactosidase: From its source and applications to its recombinant form. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2021; 69:612-628. [PMID: 33656174 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrate-active enzymes are a group of important enzymes playing a critical role in the degradation and synthesis of carbohydrates. Glycosidases can hydrolyze glycosides into oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates via a cost-effective approach. Lactase is an important member of β-glycosidases found in higher plants, animals, and microorganisms. β-Galactosidases can be used to degrade the milk lactose for making lactose-free milk, which is sweeter than regular milk and is suitable for lactose-intolerant people. β-Galactosidase is employed by many food industries to degrade lactose and improve the digestibility, sweetness, solubility, and flavor of dairy products. β-Galactosidase enzymes have various families and are applied in the food-processing industries such as hydrolyzed-milk products, whey, and galactooligosaccharides. Thus, this enzyme is a valuable protein which is now produced by recombinant technology. In this review, origins, structure, recombinant production, and critical modifications of β-galactosidase for improving the production process are discussed. Since β-galactosidase is a valuable enzyme in industry and health care, a study of its various aspects is important in industrial biotechnology and applied biochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Movahedpour
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Nahid Ahmadi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Farideh Ghalamfarsa
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Zeinab Ghesmati
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Khalifeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Amir Maleksabet
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Zahra Shabaninejad
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.,Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mortaza Taheri-Anganeh
- Shahid Arefian Hospital, Urmia, Iran.,Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Cellular and Molecular Medicine Institute, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Amir Savardashtaki
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.,Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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16
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Choi JY, Hong H, Seo H, Pan JG, Kim EJ, Maeng PJ, Yang TH, Kim KJ. High Galacto-Oligosaccharide Production and a Structural Model for Transgalactosylation of β-Galactosidase II from Bacillus circulans. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:13806-13814. [PMID: 33169609 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c05871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The transgalactosylase activity of β-galactosidase produces galacto-oligosaccharides (GOSs) with prebiotic effects similar to those of major oligosaccharides in human milk. β-Galactosidases from Bacillus circulans ATCC 31382 are important enzymes in industrial-scale GOS production. Here, we show the high GOS yield of β-galactosidase II from B. circulans (β-Gal-II, Lactazyme-B), compared to other commercial enzymes. We also determine the crystal structure of the five conserved domains of β-Gal-II in an apo-form and complexed with galactose and an acceptor sugar, showing the heterogeneous mode of transgalactosylation by the enzyme. Truncation studies of the five conserved domains reveal that all five domains are essential for enzyme catalysis, while some truncated constructs were still expressed as soluble proteins. Structural comparison of β-Gal-II with other β-galactosidase homologues suggests that the GOS linkage preference of the enzyme might be quite different from other enzymes. The structural information on β-Gal-II might provide molecular insights into the transgalactosylation process of the β-galactosidases in GOS production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Youl Choi
- R&D Center, GenoFocus Inc., 65 Techno 1-ro, Yusung-gu, Daejeon 34014, Republic of Korea
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwaseok Hong
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- KNU Institute for Microorganisms, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Hogyun Seo
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- Pohang Accelerator Laboratory, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Gu Pan
- R&D Center, GenoFocus Inc., 65 Techno 1-ro, Yusung-gu, Daejeon 34014, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui Joong Kim
- R&D Center, GenoFocus Inc., 65 Techno 1-ro, Yusung-gu, Daejeon 34014, Republic of Korea
| | - Pil Jae Maeng
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Taek Ho Yang
- R&D Center, GenoFocus Inc., 65 Techno 1-ro, Yusung-gu, Daejeon 34014, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Jin Kim
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- KNU Institute for Microorganisms, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
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17
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Sugawara A, Horiguchi H, Yoshikawa J. Identification and characterization of proteinase B as an unstable factor for neutral lactase in the enzyme preparation from Kluyveromyces lactis. J Biosci Bioeng 2020; 131:20-26. [PMID: 32958394 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2020.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The stability of the commercial lactase enzyme is important for the dairy industry. A destabilizing factor for neutral lactase in the enzyme preparation from Kluyveromyces lactis was investigated. We found that lactase had lower thermal stability when fragmented bands of lactase were confirmed on SDS-PAGE. After the destabilizing factor of lactase was purified, that was identified by BLAST search as a hypothetical protein in K. lactis similar to proteinase B (PRB) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The molecular mass of protease was estimated to be approximately 30 kDa with SDS-PAGE. The purified protease exhibited activity toward lactase and FITC-casein but not toward bovine serum albumin or milk casein. The optimal pH and temperature of the protease were 8.0 and 40 °C, respectively. The protease activity was strongly inhibited by Fe2+, Cu2+, and a serine protease inhibitor, but activated by Ca2+. Based on these properties, the protease was identified as PRB. Lactase fragmentation was accelerated by the addition of purified PRB to the lactase preparation and was suppressed by protease inhibitors. Thus, this is the first report to identify and characterize PRB as the unstable factor of neutral lactase in the K. lactis preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asami Sugawara
- Enzymes and Pharmaceuticals Laboratory, Godo Shusei Co., Ltd., 250 Azanakahara, Kamihongo, Matsudo-shi, Chiba 271-0064, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Horiguchi
- Enzymes and Pharmaceuticals Laboratory, Godo Shusei Co., Ltd., 250 Azanakahara, Kamihongo, Matsudo-shi, Chiba 271-0064, Japan
| | - Jun Yoshikawa
- Enzymes and Pharmaceuticals Laboratory, Godo Shusei Co., Ltd., 250 Azanakahara, Kamihongo, Matsudo-shi, Chiba 271-0064, Japan.
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18
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Highly selective and sensitive FRET based ratiometric two-photon fluorescent probe for endogenous β-galactosidase detection in living cells and tissues. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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19
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Kalkan S, Altuğ G. The composition of cultivable bacteria, bacterial pollution, and environmental variables of the coastal areas: an example from the Southeastern Black Sea, Turkey. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:356. [PMID: 32394090 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08310-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The composition and metabolic properties of cultivable heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, the levels of indicator bacteria, and physicochemical parameters were investigated in the seawater samples collected from 20 stations in coastal areas of the eastern part of the Black Sea, Turkey, between May 2017 and February 2018. The levels of indicator bacteria were detected above the national limit values during the study period. Thirty-five different bacterium species were identified. Enterobacteriaceae was recorded as the most dominant family (34.2%), and Gammaproteobacteria was recorded as the most dominant class (74.2%). Bacteriological threats on human and ecosystem health were determined in coastal areas of the Southeastern Black Sea. The determination of the high levels of indicator bacteria, the high ratio of fecal coliform/fecal streptococci (FC/FS ratio), and pathogenic bacteria regarding human and ecosystem health showed that these coastal areas under the influences of terrestrial and human-sourced bacteriological pollution. This study has contributed to the increase of knowledge of understanding the protection and rehabilitation ways of the Black Sea coastal regions against land-based pollution sources considering the interdependent structure of all Black Sea countries. Coastal areas are accepted as the most fragile part of the marine environments and our findings showed the potential bacteriological risks in coastal areas of the Southeastern Black Sea as an important example. Serious precautions should be taken for the protection in this area and such coastal ecosystems to prevent hazardous problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samet Kalkan
- Faculty of Fisheries, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Ataturk Street Fener District, 53100, Merkez, Rize, Turkey.
| | - Gülşen Altuğ
- Faculty of Aquatic Sciences, Istanbul University, Ordu Street No 200, 34470, Laleli, Istanbul, Turkey
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20
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Thøgersen MS, Christensen SJ, Jepsen M, Pedersen LH, Stougaard P. Transglycosylating β-d-galactosidase and α-l-fucosidase from Paenibacillus sp. 3179 from a hot spring in East Greenland. Microbiologyopen 2020; 9:e980. [PMID: 31868312 PMCID: PMC7066462 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermal springs are excellent locations for discovery of thermostable microorganisms and enzymes. In this study, we identify a novel thermotolerant bacterial strain related to Paenibacillus dendritiformis, denoted Paenibacillus sp. 3179, which was isolated from a thermal spring in East Greenland. A functional expression library of the strain was constructed, and the library screened for β-d-galactosidase and α-l-fucosidase activities on chromogenic substrates. This identified two genes encoding a β-d-galactosidase and an α-l-fucosidase, respectively. The enzymes were recombinantly expressed, purified, and characterized using oNPG (2-nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside) and pNP-fucose (4-nitrophenyl-α-l-fucopyranoside), respectively. The enzymes were shown to have optimal activity at 50°C and pH 7-8, and they were able to hydrolyze as well as transglycosylate natural carbohydrates. The transglycosylation activities were investigated using TLC and HPLC, and the β-d-galactosidase was shown to produce the galactooligosaccharides (GOS) 6'-O-galactosyllactose and 3'-O-galactosyllactose using lactose as substrate, whereas the α-l-fucosidase was able to transfer the fucose moiety from pNP-fuc to lactose, thereby forming 2'-O-fucosyllactose. Since enzymes that are able to transglycosylate carbohydrates at elevated temperature are desirable in many industrial processes, including food and dairy production, we foresee the potential use of enzymes from Paenibacillus sp. 3179 in the production of, for example, instant formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariane S. Thøgersen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Aarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
| | - Stefan J. Christensen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Roskilde UniversityRoskildeDenmark
| | - Morten Jepsen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Novo Nordisk A/SBagsværdDenmark
| | | | - Peter Stougaard
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Aarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
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21
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β-Galactosidases: A great tool for synthesizing galactose-containing carbohydrates. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 39:107465. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.107465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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22
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Fernández‐Gutierrez D, Veillette M, Ramirez AA, Giroir‐Fendler A, Faucheux N, Heitz M. Production of 2,3‐butanediol from diverse saccharides via fermentation. CAN J CHEM ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cjce.23584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Fernández‐Gutierrez
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological EngineeringUniversité de Sherbrooke, SherbrookeQC J1K 2R1 Canada
- Institut de Recherche sur la Catalyse et l’Environnement de Lyon (IRCELYON, Université Lyon 1), Villeurbanne Cedex69626 France
| | - Marc Veillette
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological EngineeringUniversité de Sherbrooke, SherbrookeQC J1K 2R1 Canada
| | - Antonio Avalos Ramirez
- Centre National en Électrochimie et en Technologies Environnementales, ShawiniganQC G9N 6V8 Canada
| | - Anne Giroir‐Fendler
- Institut de Recherche sur la Catalyse et l’Environnement de Lyon (IRCELYON, Université Lyon 1), Villeurbanne Cedex69626 France
| | - Nathalie Faucheux
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological EngineeringUniversité de Sherbrooke, SherbrookeQC J1K 2R1 Canada
| | - Michèle Heitz
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological EngineeringUniversité de Sherbrooke, SherbrookeQC J1K 2R1 Canada
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23
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Elsayed EA, Danial EN, Wadaan MA, El-Enshasy HA. Production of β-galactosidase in shake-flask and stirred tank bioreactor cultivations by a newly isolated Bacillus licheniformis strain. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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24
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Senescence-associated-β-galactosidase staining following traumatic brain injury in the mouse cerebrum. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0213673. [PMID: 30856215 PMCID: PMC6411151 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary and secondary traumatic brain injury (TBI) can cause tissue damage by inducing cell death pathways including apoptosis, necroptosis, and autophagy. However, similar pathways can also lead to senescence. Senescent cells secrete senescence-associated secretory phenotype proteins following persistent DNA damage response signaling, leading to cell disorders. TBI initially activates the cell cycle followed by the subsequent triggering of senescence. This study aims to clarify how the mRNA and protein expression of different markers of cell cycle and senescence are modulated and switched over time after TBI. We performed senescence-associated-β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining, immunohistochemical analysis, and real-time PCR to examine the time-dependent changes in expression levels of proteins and mRNA, related to cell cycle and cellular senescence markers, in the cerebrum during the initial 14 days after TBI using a mouse model of controlled cortical impact (CCI). Within the area adjacent to the cerebral contusion after TBI, the protein and/or mRNA expression levels of cell cycle markers were increased significantly until 4 days after injury and senescence markers were significantly increased at 4, 7, and 14 days after injury. Our findings suggested that TBI initially activated the cell cycle in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia within the area adjacent to the hemicerebrum contusion in TBI, whereas after 4 days, such cells could undergo senescence in a cell-type-dependent manner.
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25
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Study on expression and action mode of recombinant alginate lyases based on conserved domains reconstruction. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 103:807-817. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9502-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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26
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Watanabe M, Matsuzawa T, Yaoi K. Rational protein design for thermostabilization of glycoside hydrolases based on structural analysis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:8677-8684. [PMID: 30109396 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9288-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Glycosidases are used in the food, chemical, and energy industries. These proteins are some of the most frequently used such enzymes, and their thermostability is essential for long-term and/or repeated use. In addition to thermostability, modification of the substrate selectivity and improvement of the glycosidase activities are also important. Thermostabilization of enzymes can be performed by directed evolution via random mutagenesis or by rational design via site-directed mutagenesis; each approach has advantages and disadvantages. In this paper, we introduce thermostabilization of glycoside hydrolases by rational protein design using site-directed mutagenesis along with X-ray crystallography and simulation modeling. We focus on the methods of thermostabilization of glycoside hydrolases by linking the N- and C-terminal ends, introducing disulfide bridges, and optimizing β-turn structures to promote hydrophobic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Watanabe
- Research Institute for Sustainable Chemistry, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 3-11-32, Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-0046, Japan
| | - Tomohiko Matsuzawa
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba Central 6, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan
| | - Katsuro Yaoi
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba Central 6, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan.
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27
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Yin H, Dijkhuizen L, van Leeuwen SS. Synthesis of galacto-oligosaccharides derived from lactulose by wild-type and mutant β-galactosidase enzymes from Bacillus circulans ATCC 31382. Carbohydr Res 2018; 465:58-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2018.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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28
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Tanaka SI, Takahashi T, Koide A, Iwamoto R, Koikeda S, Koide S. Monobody-Mediated Alteration of Lipase Substrate Specificity. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1487-1492. [PMID: 29757606 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.8b00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Controlling the catalytic properties of enzymes remain an important challenge in chemistry and biotechnology. We have recently established a strategy for altering enzyme specificity in which the addition of proxy monobodies, synthetic binding proteins, modulates the specificity of an otherwise unmodified enzyme. Here, in order to examine its broader applicability, we employed the strategy on Candida rugosa lipase 1 (CRL1), an enzyme with a tunnel-like substrate binding site. We successfully identified proxy monobodies that restricted the substrate specificity of CRL1 toward short-chain fatty acids. The successes with this enzyme system and a β-galactosidase used in the previous work suggest that our strategy can be applied to diverse enzymes with distinct architectures of substrate binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-ichi Tanaka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu 509-0109, Japan
- Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu 509-0109, Japan
| | - Akiko Koide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Perlmutter Cancer Center, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, United States
- Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Riki Iwamoto
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
| | - Satoshi Koikeda
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu 509-0109, Japan
| | - Shohei Koide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Perlmutter Cancer Center, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, United States
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29
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Yin H, Pijning T, Meng X, Dijkhuizen L, van Leeuwen SS. Biochemical Characterization of the Functional Roles of Residues in the Active Site of the β-Galactosidase from Bacillus circulans ATCC 31382. Biochemistry 2017; 56:3109-3118. [PMID: 28538097 PMCID: PMC5481816 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 05/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The β-galactosidase enzyme from Bacillus circulans ATCC 31382 BgaD is widely used in the food industry to produce prebiotic galactooligosaccharides (GOS). Recently, the crystal structure of a C-terminally truncated version of the enzyme (BgaD-D) has been elucidated. The roles of active site amino acid residues in β-galactosidase enzyme reaction and product specificity have remained unknown. On the basis of a structural alignment of the β-galactosidase enzymes BgaD-D from B. circulans and BgaA from Streptococcus pneumoniae, and the complex of BgaA with LacNAc, we identified eight active site amino acid residues (Arg185, Asp481, Lys487, Tyr511, Trp570, Trp593, Glu601, and Phe616) in BgaD-D. This study reports an investigation of the functional roles of these residues, using site-directed mutagenesis, and a detailed biochemical characterization and product profile analysis of the mutants obtained. The data show that these residues are involved in binding and positioning of the substrate and thus determine the BgaD-D activity and product linkage specificity. This study provides detailed insights into the structure-function relationships of the B. circulans BgaD-D enzyme, especially regarding GOS product linkage specificity, allowing the rational mutation of β-galactosidase enzymes to produce specific mixtures of GOS structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Yin
- Microbial
Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
(GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tjaard Pijning
- Biophysical
Chemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
(GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Xiangfeng Meng
- Microbial
Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
(GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Lubbert Dijkhuizen
- Microbial
Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
(GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sander S. van Leeuwen
- Microbial
Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
(GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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30
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Zhen X, Li B, Hu F, Yan S, Meloni G, Li H, Shi N. Crystal structure of the DNA-binding domain of Myelin-gene Regulatory Factor. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3696. [PMID: 28623291 PMCID: PMC5473870 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03768-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelin-gene Regulatory Factor (MyRF) is one of the master transcription factors controlling myelin formation and development in oligodendrocytes which is crucial for the powerful brain functions. The N-terminal of MyRF, which contains a proline-rich region and a DNA binding domain (DBD), is auto-cleaved from the ER membrane, and then enters the nucleus to participate in transcription regulation of the myelin genes. Here we report the crystal structure of MyRF DBD. It shows an Ig-fold like architecture which consists of two antiparallel β-sheets with 7 main strands, packing against each other, forming a β-sandwich. Compared to its homolog, Ndt80, MyRF has a smaller and less complex DBD lacking the helices and the big loops outside the core. Structural alignment reveals that MyRF DBD possess less interaction sites with DNA than Ndt80 and may bind only at the major groove of DNA. Moreover, the structure reveals a trimeric assembly, agreeing with the previous report that MyRF DBD functions as a trimer. The mutant that we designed based on the structure disturbed trimer formation, but didn't affect the auto-cleavage reaction. It demonstrates that the activation of self-cleavage reaction of MyRF is independent of the presence of its N-terminal DBD homotrimer. The structure reported here will help to understand the molecular mechanism underlying the important roles of MyRF in myelin formation and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangkai Zhen
- 0000 0004 1793 3165grid.418036.8State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, 350002 China
| | - Bowen Li
- 0000 0004 1793 3165grid.418036.8State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, 350002 China
| | - Fen Hu
- 0000 0004 1793 3165grid.418036.8State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, 350002 China
| | - Shufeng Yan
- 0000 0004 1793 3165grid.418036.8State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, 350002 China
| | - Gabriele Meloni
- 0000 0001 2151 7939grid.267323.1Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080 USA
| | - Huiliang Li
- 0000000121901201grid.83440.3bWolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Ning Shi
- 0000 0004 1793 3165grid.418036.8State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, 350002 China
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Reaction kinetics and galactooligosaccharide product profiles of the β-galactosidases from Bacillus circulans, Kluyveromyces lactis and Aspergillus oryzae. Food Chem 2017; 225:230-238. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Yin H, Pijning T, Meng X, Dijkhuizen L, van Leeuwen SS. Engineering of the Bacillus circulans β-Galactosidase Product Specificity. Biochemistry 2017; 56:704-711. [PMID: 28092444 PMCID: PMC5330655 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Microbial β-galactosidase enzymes are widely used as biocatalysts in industry to produce prebiotic galactooligosaccharides (GOS) from lactose. GOS mixtures are used as beneficial additives in infant formula to mimic the prebiotic effects of human milk oligosaccharides (hMOS). The structural variety in GOS mixtures is significantly lower than in hMOS. Since this structural complexity is considered as the basis for the multiple biological functions of hMOS, it is important to broaden the variety of GOS structures. In this study, residue R484 near +1 subsite of the C-terminally truncated β-galactosidase from Bacillus circulans (BgaD-D) was subjected to site saturation mutagenesis. Especially the R484S and R484H mutant enzymes displayed significantly altered enzyme specificity, leading to a new type of GOS mixture with altered structures and linkage types. The GOS mixtures produced by these mutant enzymes contained 14 structures that were not present in the wild-type enzyme GOS mixture; 10 of these are completely new structures. The GOS produced by these mutant enzymes contained a combination of (β1 → 3) and (β1 → 4) linkages, while the wild-type enzyme has a clear preference toward (β1 → 4) linkages. The yield of the trisaccharide β-d-Galp-(1 → 3)-β-d-Galp-(1 → 4)-d-Glcp produced by mutants R484S and R484H increased 50 times compared to that of the wild-type enzyme. These results indicate that residue R484 is crucial for the linkage specificity of BgaD-D. This is the first study showing that β-galactosidase enzyme engineering results in an altered GOS linkage specificity and product mixture. The more diverse GOS mixtures produced by these engineered enzymes may find industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Yin
- Microbial Physiology and Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen
Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University
of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tjaard Pijning
- Microbial Physiology and Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen
Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University
of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Xiangfeng Meng
- Microbial Physiology and Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen
Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University
of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Lubbert Dijkhuizen
- Microbial Physiology and Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen
Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University
of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sander S. van Leeuwen
- Microbial Physiology and Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen
Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University
of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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33
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Duan X, Hu S, Qi X, Gu Z, Wu J. Optimal extracellular production of recombinant Bacillus circulans β-galactosidase in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Process Biochem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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34
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Jiang G, Zeng G, Zhu W, Li Y, Dong X, Zhang G, Fan X, Wang J, Wu Y, Tang BZ. A selective and light-up fluorescent probe for β-galactosidase activity detection and imaging in living cells based on an AIE tetraphenylethylene derivative. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:4505-4508. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc00249a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
An AIE based tetraphenylethylene derivative (TPE-Gal) was designed for light-up fluorescence detection and imaging of β-galactosidase activity in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyu Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Guanjie Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Wenping Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Yongdong Li
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaobiao Dong
- Organic Solids Laboratory
- Institute of Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Guanxin Zhang
- Organic Solids Laboratory
- Institute of Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaolin Fan
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Jianguo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Yongquan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Organo-Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Gannan Normal University
- Ganzhou 341000
- P. R. China
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- Department of Chemistry
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Institute of Molecular Functional Materials
- and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience
- The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology
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Talens-Perales D, Górska A, Huson DH, Polaina J, Marín-Navarro J. Analysis of Domain Architecture and Phylogenetics of Family 2 Glycoside Hydrolases (GH2). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0168035. [PMID: 27930742 PMCID: PMC5145203 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work we report a detailed analysis of the topology and phylogenetics of family 2 glycoside hydrolases (GH2). We distinguish five topologies or domain architectures based on the presence and distribution of protein domains defined in Pfam and Interpro databases. All of them share a central TIM barrel (catalytic module) with two β-sandwich domains (non-catalytic) at the N-terminal end, but differ in the occurrence and nature of additional non-catalytic modules at the C-terminal region. Phylogenetic analysis was based on the sequence of the Pfam Glyco_hydro_2_C catalytic module present in most GH2 proteins. Our results led us to propose a model in which evolutionary diversity of GH2 enzymes is driven by the addition of different non-catalytic domains at the C-terminal region. This model accounts for the divergence of β-galactosidases from β-glucuronidases, the diversification of β-galactosidases with different transglycosylation specificities, and the emergence of bicistronic β-galactosidases. This study also allows the identification of groups of functionally uncharacterized protein sequences with potential biotechnological interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Talens-Perales
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, CSIC, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Anna Górska
- Center for Bioinformatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniel H. Huson
- Center for Bioinformatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Julio Polaina
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, CSIC, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Julia Marín-Navarro
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, CSIC, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
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36
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Rutkiewicz-Krotewicz M, Pietrzyk-Brzezinska AJ, Sekula B, Cieśliński H, Wierzbicka-Woś A, Kur J, Bujacz A. Structural studies of a cold-adapted dimeric β-D-galactosidase fromParacoccussp. 32d. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2016; 72:1049-61. [DOI: 10.1107/s2059798316012535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structure of a novel dimeric β-D-galactosidase fromParacoccussp. 32d (ParβDG) was solved in space groupP212121at a resolution of 2.4 Å by molecular replacement with multiple models using theBALBESsoftware. This enzyme belongs to glycoside hydrolase family 2 (GH2), similar to the tetrameric and hexameric β-D-galactosidases fromEscherichia coliandArthrobactersp. C2-2, respectively. It is the second known structure of a cold-active GH2 β-galactosidase, and the first in the form of a functional dimer, which is also present in the asymmetric unit. Cold-adapted β-D-galactosidases have been the focus of extensive research owing to their utility in a variety of industrial technologies. One of their most appealing applications is in the hydrolysis of lactose, which not only results in the production of lactose-free dairy, but also eliminates the `sandy effect' and increases the sweetness of the product, thus enhancing its quality. The determined crystal structure represents the five-domain architecture of the enzyme, with its active site located in close vicinity to the dimer interface. To identify the amino-acid residues involved in the catalytic reaction and to obtain a better understanding of the mechanism of action of this atypical β-D-galactosidase, the crystal structure in complex with galactose (ParβDG–Gal) was also determined. The catalytic site of the enzyme is created by amino-acid residues from the central domain 3 and from domain 4 of an adjacent monomer. The crystal structure of this dimeric β-D-galactosidase reveals significant differences in comparison to other β-galactosidases. The largest difference is in the fifth domain, named Bgal_windup domain 5 inParβDG, which contributes to stabilization of the functional dimer. The location of this domain 5, which is unique in size and structure, may be one of the factors responsible for the creation of a functional dimer and cold-adaptation of this enzyme.
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Tanaka SI, Takahashi T, Koide A, Ishihara S, Koikeda S, Koide S. Monobody-mediated alteration of enzyme specificity. Nat Chem Biol 2015; 11:762-4. [PMID: 26322825 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Current methods for engineering enzymes modify enzymes themselves and require a detailed mechanistic understanding or a high-throughput assay. Here, we describe a new approach where catalytic properties are modulated with synthetic binding proteins, termed monobodies, directed to an unmodified enzyme. Using the example of a β-galactosidase from Bacillus circulans, we efficiently identified monobodies that restricted its substrates for its transgalactosylation reaction and selectively enhanced the production of small oligosaccharide prebiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-Ichi Tanaka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu, Japan
| | - Akiko Koide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Satoru Ishihara
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu, Japan
| | - Satoshi Koikeda
- Frontier Research Department, Gifu R&D Center, Amano Enzyme, Inc., Gifu, Japan
| | - Shohei Koide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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