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Swolinsky JS, Hinz RM, Markus CE, Singer E, Bachmann F, Halleck F, Kron S, Naik MG, Schmidt D, Obermeier M, Gebert P, Rauch G, Kropf S, Haase M, Budde K, Eckardt KU, Westhoff TH, Schmidt-Ott KM. Plasma NGAL levels in stable kidney transplant recipients and the risk of allograft loss. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2024; 39:483-495. [PMID: 37858309 PMCID: PMC11024820 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfad226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to investigate the utility of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and calprotectin (CPT) to predict long-term graft survival in stable kidney transplant recipients (KTR). METHODS A total of 709 stable outpatient KTR were enrolled >2 months post-transplant. The utility of plasma and urinary NGAL (pNGAL, uNGAL) and plasma and urinary CPT at enrollment to predict death-censored graft loss was evaluated during a 58-month follow-up. RESULTS Among biomarkers, pNGAL showed the best predictive ability for graft loss and was the only biomarker with an area under the curve (AUC) > 0.7 for graft loss within 5 years. Patients with graft loss within 5 years (n = 49) had a median pNGAL of 304 [interquartile range (IQR) 235-358] versus 182 (IQR 128-246) ng/mL with surviving grafts (P < .001). Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic analyses at 58 months indicated an AUC for pNGAL of 0.795, serum creatinine-based Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) had an AUC of 0.866. pNGAL added to a model based on conventional risk factors for graft loss with death as competing risk (age, transplant age, presence of donor-specific antibodies, presence of proteinuria, history of delayed graft function) had a strong independent association with graft loss {subdistribution hazard ratio (sHR) for binary log-transformed pNGAL [log2(pNGAL)] 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.24-5.15, P < .0001}. This association was substantially attenuated when eGFR was added to the model [sHR for log2(pNGAL) 1.63, 95% CI 0.92-2.88, P = .095]. Category-free net reclassification improvement of a risk model including log2(pNGAL) in addition to conventional risk factors and eGFR was 54.3% (95% CI 9.2%-99.3%) but C-statistic did not improve significantly. CONCLUSIONS pNGAL was an independent predictor of renal allograft loss in stable KTR from one transplant center but did not show consistent added value when compared with baseline predictors including the conventional marker eGFR. Future studies in larger cohorts are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jutta S Swolinsky
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ricarda M Hinz
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin E Markus
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eugenia Singer
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Friederike Bachmann
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fabian Halleck
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanne Kron
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcel G Naik
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin
| | - Danilo Schmidt
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Pimrapat Gebert
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biometry and Clinical Epidemiology
| | - Geraldine Rauch
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biometry and Clinical Epidemiology
| | - Siegfried Kropf
- Institute of Biometry and Medical Informatics, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Haase
- Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Diaverum Renal Services, MVZ Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Klemens Budde
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai-Uwe Eckardt
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
| | - Timm H Westhoff
- Medical Department I, Marien Hospital Herne, Universitätsklinikum der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Kai M Schmidt-Ott
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Berlin, Germany
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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2
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Schanz M, Kimmel M. [Biomarkers in acute kidney injury - the search for the "renal troponin"]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2023; 148:610-619. [PMID: 37105189 DOI: 10.1055/a-1916-7598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
The prognosis of acute kidney injury (AKI) is poor, partly due to significant limitations of the current functional marker-based definition, which results in too small therapeutic window to treat AKI. Therefore, AKI biomarkers are needed to detect AKI earlier. Classical filtration markers are serum creatinine and cystatin C, which, however, show clear limitations for AKI prediction. Early AKI markers are divided into damage markers and "stress" markers. The latter indicate a pre-injury phase with increased AKI risk. The one "renal troponin" will probably never be found because of heterogeneous renal structure and heterogeneous causes of AKI. However, AI-based models with inclusion of biomarkers could significantly improve AKI prediction and prognosis.
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3
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Morevati M, Fang EF, Mace ML, Kanbay M, Gravesen E, Nordholm A, Egstrand S, Hornum M. Roles of NAD + in Acute and Chronic Kidney Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010137. [PMID: 36613582 PMCID: PMC9820289 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized form, NAD+) is a critical coenzyme, with functions ranging from redox reactions and energy metabolism in mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation to being a central player in multiple cellular signaling pathways, organ resilience, health, and longevity. Many of its cellular functions are executed via serving as a co-substrate for sirtuins (SIRTs), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), and CD38. Kidney damage and diseases are common in the general population, especially in elderly persons and diabetic patients. While NAD+ is reduced in acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), mounting evidence indicates that NAD+ augmentation is beneficial to AKI, although conflicting results exist for cases of CKD. Here, we review recent progress in the field of NAD+, mainly focusing on compromised NAD+ levels in AKI and its effect on essential cellular pathways, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, compromised autophagy, and low expression of the aging biomarker αKlotho (Klotho) in the kidney. We also review the compromised NAD+ levels in renal fibrosis and senescence cells in the case of CKD. As there is an urgent need for more effective treatments for patients with injured kidneys, further studies on NAD+ in relation to AKI/CKD may shed light on novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marya Morevati
- Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Correspondence:
| | - Evandro Fei Fang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478 Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Maria L. Mace
- Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mehmet Kanbay
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
| | - Eva Gravesen
- Department of Pathology, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, 2730 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Nordholm
- Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Egstrand
- Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mads Hornum
- Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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4
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Zhang Q, Li Y, Hu Q, Xie R, Zhou W, Liu X, Wang Y. Smartphone surface plasmon resonance imaging for the simultaneous and sensitive detection of acute kidney injury biomarkers with noninvasive urinalysis. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:4941-4949. [PMID: 36411971 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00417h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) platform integrated with a smartphone was constructed for the simultaneous and sensitive detection of acute kidney injury (AKI) biomarkers. The smartphone SPRi platform was developed without the requirement of additional light and power sources. The LED flash of the smartphone was used as the light source for the excitation of surface plasmon resonance of a gold sensor chip based on the Kretschmann configuration, while the reflected light was collected by the camera of the smartphone. This smartphone SPRi system was conveniently fabricated by 3D printing and showed a sensitivity of 1.78 × 10-5 refractive index unit (RIU). In addition, based on a magnetic nanoparticle-enhanced sandwich immunoassay, the smartphone SPRi system with a gold array chip was employed for the detection of multiple AKI biomarkers, with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.19 ng ml-1, 0.51 ng ml-1 and 0.7 ng ml-1 for the simultaneous detection of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), interleukin-18 (IL-18) and retinol-binding protein (RBP) in urine, respectively. The biosensors demonstrated high specificity and sensitivity for the simultaneous detection of multiple AKI biomarkers in PBST and urine. The smartphone SPRi system provided a portable and cost-effective platform for point-of-care diagnosis, in-field healthcare and environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingwen Zhang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
| | - Yang Li
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
- The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000 China
| | - Qianqian Hu
- Beijing Chaoyang District Ecological and Environmental Monitoring Center, Beijing, 100123 China
| | - Ruifeng Xie
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
| | - Wenjing Zhou
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
| | - Xiaohu Liu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
| | - Yi Wang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001 China.
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5
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Rutai A, Zsikai B, Tallósy SP, Érces D, Bizánc L, Juhász L, Poles MZ, Sóki J, Baaity Z, Fejes R, Varga G, Földesi I, Burián K, Szabó A, Boros M, Kaszaki J. A Porcine Sepsis Model With Numerical Scoring for Early Prediction of Severity. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:867796. [PMID: 35615093 PMCID: PMC9125192 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.867796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sepsis can lead to organ dysfunctions with disturbed oxygen dynamics and life-threatening consequences. Since the results of organ-protective treatments cannot always be transferred from laboratory models into human therapies, increasing the translational potential of preclinical settings is an important goal. Our aim was to develop a standardized research protocol, where the progression of sepsis-related events can be characterized reproducibly in model experiments within clinically-relevant time frames. Methods Peritonitis was induced in anesthetized minipigs injected intraperitoneally with autofeces inoculum (n = 27) or with saline (sham operation; n = 9). The microbial colony-forming units (CFUs) in the inoculum were retrospectively determined. After awakening, clinically relevant supportive therapies were conducted. Nineteen inoculated animals developed sepsis without a fulminant reaction. Sixteen hours later, these animals were re-anesthetized for invasive monitoring. Blood samples were taken to detect plasma TNF-α, IL-10, big endothelin (bET), high mobility group box protein1 (HMGB1) levels and blood gases, and sublingual microcirculatory measurements were conducted. Hemodynamic, respiratory, coagulation, liver and kidney dysfunctions were detected to characterize the septic status with a pig-specific Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (pSOFA) score and its simplified version (respiratory, cardiovascular and renal failure) between 16 and 24 h of the experiments. Results Despite the standardized sepsis induction, the animals could be clustered into two distinct levels of severity: a sepsis (n = 10; median pSOFA score = 2) and a septic shock (n = 9; median pSOFA score = 8) subgroup at 18 h of the experiments, when the decreased systemic vascular resistance, increased DO2 and VO2, and markedly increased ExO2 demonstrated a compensated hyperdynamic state. Septic animals showed severity-dependent scores for organ failure with reduced microcirculation despite the adequate oxygen dynamics. Sepsis severity characterized later with pSOFA scores was in correlation with the germ count in the induction inoculum (r = 0.664) and CFUs in hemocultures (r = 0.876). Early changes in plasma levels of TNF-α, bET and HMGB1 were all related to the late-onset organ dysfunctions characterized by pSOFA scores. Conclusions This microbiologically-monitored, large animal model of intraabdominal sepsis is suitable for clinically-relevant investigations. The methodology combines the advantages of conscious and anesthetized studies, and mimics human sepsis and septic shock closely with the possibility of numerical quantification of host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Attila Rutai
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Bettina Zsikai
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Szabolcs Péter Tallósy
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dániel Érces
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Lajos Bizánc
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Juhász
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Marietta Zita Poles
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - József Sóki
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Center and Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zain Baaity
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Center and Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Roland Fejes
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gabriella Varga
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Imre Földesi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Katalin Burián
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Center and Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Andrea Szabó
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Mihály Boros
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - József Kaszaki
- Institute of Surgical Research, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- *Correspondence: József Kaszaki
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6
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Larsen T, See EJ, Holmes N, Bellomo R. Estimating baseline kidney function in hospitalised adults with acute kidney injury. Nephrology (Carlton) 2022; 27:588-600. [PMID: 35471640 PMCID: PMC9325517 DOI: 10.1111/nep.14047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM Baseline serum creatinine values are required to diagnose acute kidney injury but are often unavailable. We evaluated four conventional equations to estimate creatinine. We then developed and validated a new equation corrected by age and gender. METHODS We retrospectively examined adults who, at first hospital admission, had available baseline creatinine data and developed acute kidney injury ≥ 24 hours after admission. We split the study population: 50% (derivation) to develop a new linear equation and 50% (validation) to compare against conventional equations for bias, precision, and accuracy. We stratified analyses by age and gender. RESULTS We studied 3,139 hospitalised adults (58% male, median age 71). Conventional equations performed poorly in bias and accuracy in patients aged < 60 or ≥ 75 (68% of the study population). The new linear equation had less bias and more accuracy. There were no clinically significant differences in precision. The median (95% confidence interval) difference in creatinine values estimated via the new equation minus measured baselines was 0.9 (-3.0, 5.9) and -0.5 (-7.0, 3.7) μmol/L in female patients 18-60 and 75-100, and -1.5 (-4.2, 2.2) and -7.8 (-12.7, -3.6) μmol/L in male patients 18-60 and 75-100 respectively. The new equation improved reclassification of KDIGO AKI stages compared to the MDRD II equation by 5.0%. CONCLUSION Equations adjusted for age and gender are less biased and more accurate than unadjusted equations. Our new equation performed well in terms of bias, precision, accuracy, and reclassification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Larsen
- Data Analytics Research Evaluation (DARE) Centre, Austin Hospital and University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Australia.,Department of Critical Care, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emily J See
- Department of Critical Care, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Intensive Care, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Australia.,Department of Nephrology, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Nephrology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Natasha Holmes
- Data Analytics Research Evaluation (DARE) Centre, Austin Hospital and University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Data Analytics Research Evaluation (DARE) Centre, Austin Hospital and University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Australia.,Department of Critical Care, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Intensive Care, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Australia.,Department of Intensive Care, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Australia.,Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Research Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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7
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Abstract
Medications are a common cause of AKI especially for patients admitted to hospital wards and the intensive care unit. Although drug-related kidney injury occurs through different mechanisms, this review will focus on three specific types of tubulointerstitial injury. Direct acute tubular injury develops from several medications, which are toxic to various cellular functions. Their excretory pathways through the proximal tubules contribute further to AKI. Drug-induced AKI may also develop through induction of inflammation within the tubulointerstitium. Medications can elicit a T cell-mediated immune response that promotes the development of acute interstitial nephritis leading to AKI. Although less common, a third pathway to kidney injury results from the insolubility of drugs in the urine leading to their precipitation as crystals within distal tubular lumens, causing a crystalline-related AKI. Intratubular obstruction, direct tubular injury, and localized inflammation lead to AKI. Clinicians should be familiar with the pathogenesis and clinical-pathologic manifestations of these forms of kidney injury. Prevention and treatment of AKI relies on understanding the pathogenesis and judiciously using these agents in settings where AKI risk is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Perazella
- Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut .,Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, West Haven, Connecticut
| | - Mitchell H Rosner
- Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia
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