Deconstructing deployment of the innate immune lymphocyte army for barrier homeostasis and protection

Regulatory roles of transcription factors T-bet and Eomes in group 1 ILCs

T-bet and Eomes, both T-box transcription factors, have been extensively studied for their critical roles in the differentiation and functional maintenance of various immune cells. In this review, we provide a focused overview of their contributions to the transcriptional activation and differentiation, development, and terminal maturation of natural killer cells and innate lymphoid cell 1 cells. Furthermore, the interplay between T-bet and Eomes in regulating NK cell function, and its subsequent implications for immune responses against infections and tumors, is thoroughly examined. The review explores the ramifications of dysregulated transcription factor expression, examining its impact on homeostatic balance and its role in a spectrum of disease models. Expression variances among distinct NK cell subsets resident in different tissues are highlighted to underscore the complexity of their biological roles. Collectively, this work aims to expand the current understanding of NK cell biology, thereby paving the way for innovative approaches in the realm of NK cell-based immunotherapies.

Type 1 Innate Lymphoid Cells Are Proinflammatory Effector Cells in Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury of Steatotic Livers

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), the most recently described family of lymphoid cells, play fundamental roles in tissue homeostasis through the production of key cytokine. Group 1 ILCs, comprised of conventional natural killer cells (cNKs) and type 1 ILCs (ILC1s), have been implicated in regulating immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. However, the role of ILC1s in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is unclear. Here, we investigated the role of ILC1 and cNK cells in a high-fat diet (HFD) murine model of partial warm IRI. We demonstrated that hepatic steatosis results in more severe IRI compared to non-steatotic livers. We further elicited that HFD-IRI mice show a significant increase in the ILC1 population, whereas the cNK population was unchanged. Since ILC1 and cNK are major sources of IFN-γ and TNF-α, we measured the level of ex vivo cytokine expression in normal diet (ND)-IRI and HFD-IRI conditions. We found that ILC1s in HFD-IRI mice produce significantly more IFN-γ and TNF-α when compared to ND-IRI. To further assess whether ILC1s are key proinflammatory effector cells in hepatic IRI of fatty livers, we studied both Rag1−/− mice, which possess cNK cells, and a substantial population of ILC1s versus the newly generated Rag1−/−Tbx21−/− double knockout (Rag1-Tbet DKO) mice, which lack type 1 ILCs, under HFD IRI conditions. Importantly, HFD Rag1-Tbet DKO mice showed significant protection from hepatic injury upon IRI when compared to Rag1−/− mice, suggesting that T-bet-expressing ILC1s play a role, at least in part, as proinflammatory effector cells in hepatic IRI under steatotic conditions.

Immune Checkpoints and Innate Lymphoid Cells-New Avenues for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immune checkpoints (IC) are broadly characterized as inhibitory pathways that tightly regulate the activation of the immune system. These molecular "brakes" are centrally involved in the maintenance of immune self-tolerance and represent a key mechanism in avoiding autoimmunity and tissue destruction. Antibody-based therapies target these inhibitory molecules on T cells to improve their cytotoxic function, with unprecedented clinical efficacies for a number of malignancies. Many of these ICs are also expressed on innate lymphoid cells (ILC), drawing interest from the field to understand their function, impact for anti-tumor immunity and potential for immunotherapy. In this review, we highlight ILC specificities at different tissue sites and their migration potential upon inflammatory challenge. We further summarize the current understanding of IC molecules on ILC and discuss potential strategies for ILC modulation as part of a greater anti-cancer armamentarium.

Natural Killer Cells and Type 1 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Natural killer (NK) cells and type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) are specific innate lymphoid cell subsets that are key for the detection and elimination of pathogens and cancer cells. In liver, while they share a number of characteristics, they differ in many features. These include their developmental pathways, tissue distribution, phenotype and functions. NK cells and ILC1 contribute to organ homeostasis through the production of key cytokines and chemokines and the elimination of potential harmful bacteria and viruses. In addition, they are equipped with a wide range of receptors, allowing them to detect “stressed cells’ such as cancer cells. Our understanding of the role of innate lymphoid cells in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is growing owing to the development of mouse models, the progress in immunotherapeutic treatment and the recent use of scRNA sequencing analyses. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of NK cells and ILC1 in hepatocellular carcinoma and discuss future strategies to take advantage of these innate immune cells in anti-tumor immunity. Immunotherapies hold great promise in HCC, and a better understanding of the role and function of NK cells and ILC1 in liver cancer could pave the way for new NK cell and/or ILC1-targeted treatment.

Deconstructing deployment of the innate immune lymphocyte army for barrier homeostasis and protection

The study of the immune system has shifted from a purely dichotomous separation between the innate and adaptive arms to one that is now highly complex and reshaping our ideas of how steady‐state health is assured. It is now clear that immune cells do not neatly fit into these two streams and immune homeostasis depends on continual dialogue between multiple lineages of the innate (including dendritic cells, innate lymphoid cells, and unconventional lymphocytes) and adaptive (T and B lymphocytes) arms together with a finely tuned synergy between the host and microbes which is essential to ensure immune homeostasis. Innate lymphoid cells are critical players in this new landscape. Here, we discuss recent studies that have elucidated in detail the development of ILCs from their earliest progenitors and examine factors that influence their identification and ability to drive immune homeostasis and long‐term immune protection.

Negative regulation of innate lymphoid cell responses in inflammation and cancer

The immune system employs an array of effector cells to ensure tissue homeostasis and protection against pathogens. Lymphocytes belonging to both the adaptive and innate branches share several functions, comprising the ability to directly kill stressed or transformed cells, and to provide helper responses through specific production of cytokines. These properties are regulated by distinct sets of soluble molecules, receptors, and intracellular factors, which altogether tune the functional output of effector lymphocytes and their final activation state. In contrast to adaptive T cells, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) do not require antigen receptors and are characterized for their ability to provide rapid immune responses. While the factors underlying functional diversification and the main principles leading to ILC activation have been dissected, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying termination of ILC effector functions is still in its infancy. Herein, we discuss the recent findings describing how ILC responses are turned off in the context of inflammation and cancer.

Innate Lymphoid Cells in Colorectal Cancers: A Double-Edged Sword

The immune system plays a fundamental role at mucosal barriers in maintaining tissue homeostasis. This is particularly true for the gut where cells are flooded with microbial-derived signals and antigens, which constantly challenge the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Multiple immune cell populations equipped with both pro- and anti-inflammatory functions reside in the gut tissue and these cells tightly regulate intestinal health and functions. Dysregulation of this finely tuned system can progressively lead to autoimmune disease and inflammation-driven carcinogenesis. Over the last decade, the contribution of the adaptive immune system in controlling colorectal cancer has been studied in detail, but the role of the innate system, particularly innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), have been largely overlooked. By sensing their microenvironment, ILCs are essential in supporting gut epithelium repair and controling bacterial- and helminth-mediated intestinal infections, highlighting their important role in maintaining tissue integrity. Accumulating evidence also suggests that they may play an important role in carcinogenesis including intestinal cancers. In this review, we will explore the current knowledge about the pro- and anti-tumor functions of ILCs in colorectal cancer.