Outcomes of treating hypertension in the elderly: a short commentary on current issues

Association of abnormal serum electrolyte levels with hypertension in a population with high salt intake

Objective

The present epidemiological study aimed to evaluate the association of serum electrolyte levels with hypertension in a population with a high-salt diet.

Design

Secondary analysis of epidemiology data from the Northeast China Rural Cardiovascular Health Study conducted in 2012–2013. Blood pressure and hypertension status were analysed for association with serum sodium, potassium, chloride, total calcium, phosphate and magnesium levels using regression models.

Setting

High-salt diet, rural China.

Participants

Adult residents in Liaoning, China.

Results

In total 10 555 participants were included, of whom 3287 had incident hypertension (IH) and 1655 had previously diagnosed hypertension (PDH). Fifty-six per cent of participants had electrolyte disturbance. Sixty-two per cent of hypercalcaemic participants had hypertension, followed by hypokalaemia (56 %) and hypernatraemia (54 %). Only hypercalcaemia showed significant associations with both IH (OR=1·70) and PDH (OR=2·25). Highest serum calcium quartile had higher odds of IH (OR=1·58) and PDH (OR=1·64) than the lowest quartile. Serum sodium had no significant correlation with hypertension. Serum potassium had a U-shaped trend with PDH. Highest chloride quartile had lower odds of PDH than the lowest chloride quartile (OR=0·65). Highest phosphate quartile was only associated with lower odds of IH (OR=0·75), and the higher magnesium group had significantly lower odds of IH (OR=0·86) and PDH (OR=0·77).

Conclusions

We have shown the association of serum calcium, magnesium and chloride levels with IH and/or PDH. In the clinical setting, patients with IH may have concurrent electrolyte disturbances, such as hypercalcaemia, that may indicate other underlying aetiologies.

Left ventricular hypertrophy and cognitive function: a systematic review

Cognitive impairment is common in patients with hypertension. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is recognised as a marker of hypertension-related organ damage and is a strong predictor of coronary artery disease, heart failure and stroke. There is evidence that LVH is independently associated with cognitive impairment, even after adjustment for the presence of hypertension. We conducted a systematic review that examined cognitive impairment in adults with LVH. Independent searches were performed in Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid psycInfo and PubMed with the terms left ventricular hypertrophy and cognition. Seventy-three studies were identified when both searches were combined. After limiting the search to studies that were: (1) reported in English; (2) conducted in humans; (3) in adults aged 50 years and older; and (4) investigated the relationship between LVH and cognitive performance, nine papers were included in this systematic review. The majority of studies found an association between LVH and cognitive performance. Inspection of results indicated that individuals with LVH exhibited a lower performance in cognitive tests, when compared to individuals without LVH. Memory and executive functions were the cognitive domains that showed a specific vulnerability to the presence of LVH. A possible mechanism for the relationship between LVH and cognition is the presence of cerebral white matter damage. White matter lesions occur frequently in patients with LVH and may contribute to cognitive dysfunction. Together, the results of this review suggest that memory impairment and executive dysfunction are the cognitive domains that showed a particular association with the presence of LVH.

Blood pressure-lowering efficacy of an olmesartan medoxomil/hydrochlorothiazide-based treatment algorithm in elderly patients (age ≥65 years) stratified by age, sex and race: subgroup analysis of a 12-week, open-label, single-arm, dose-titration study

INTRODUCTION

Hypertension is a leading risk factor for development of heart failure, stroke and renal disease in the elderly.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate, by means of a prespecified secondary analysis of a 12-week, open-label, single-arm, dose-titration study, the blood pressure (BP)-lowering efficacy and safety of an olmesartan medoxomil (OM)/hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)-based titration regimen in patients aged ≥65 years with hypertension. Subgroups were stratified by age (≥65 to ≤75 or >75 years), sex (male or female) and race (Black or non-Black).

METHODS

Following a 2- to 3-week placebo run-in phase, patients received OM 20 mg, uptitrated to OM 40 mg, followed by addition of HCTZ 12.5-25 mg step-wise at 3-week intervals if seated cuff BP (SeBP) was ≥120/70 mmHg. Patients below this target SeBP were maintained at their current dose but uptitrated to the next consecutive dose if mean seated cuff systolic BP (SBP) was ≥140 mmHg and/or mean seated cuff diastolic BP was ≥90 mmHg at follow-up visits. Efficacy was assessed by 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) and SeBP measurements. The primary efficacy variable was the change from baseline in mean 24-hour ambulatory SBP after 12 weeks. Secondary efficacy endpoints included the change from baseline in mean 24-hour ambulatory SBP; change from baseline in ambulatory BP during the daytime (8:00 am-4:00 pm), nighttime (10:00 pm-6:00 am) and the last 6, 4 and 2 hours of the dosing interval; change from baseline in SeBP at each titration step and at study end; and the proportion of patients achieving mean 24-hour ambulatory BP targets and SeBP goals at week 12. The frequency and severity of treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were also documented.

RESULTS

Baseline and week 12 ABPM data were available for 150 out of 178patients who entered the active treatment phase. Changes from baseline in mean 24-hour ambulatory BP were -26.0/-12.5 mmHg and -24.9/-12.0 mmHg in patients aged ≥65 to ≤75 years (n = 128) and >75 years (n = 48), respectively (all p < 0.0001 vs baseline). Changes from baseline in mean 24-hour ambulatory BP were -26.0/-13.0 mmHg and -25.4/-11.5 mmHg in male (n = 92) and female (n = 84) patients, respectively (all p < 0.0001 vs baseline) and -26.7/-11.8 mmHg and -25.6/-12.4 mmHg in Black (n = 28) and non-Black (n = 148) patients, respectively (all p < 0.0001 vs baseline). Clinically significant ambulatory BP reductions were observed during the daytime, nighttime and the last 6, 4 and 2 hours of the dosing interval in all subgroups. Changes from baseline at week 12 in mean SeBP were similar to 24-hour ambulatory BP changes reported previously. At week 12, the proportion of patients achieving the 24-hour ambulatory BP target of <130/80 mmHg ranged from 67.5% to 77.4% and achieving the SeBP goal of <140/90 mmHg ranged from 60.7% to 68.8% across the subgroups. Most TEAEs and drug-related TEAEs were mild or moderate in severity, and there were no trends across subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

In a subgroup analysis based upon age, sex and race in patients aged ≥65 years with hypertension, an OM/HCTZ-based algorithm was efficacious and well tolerated. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00412932.

Role of angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists in the treatment of hypertension in patients aged >or=65 years

Systolic blood pressure (SBP) increases with age, and hypertension affects approximately two-thirds of adults in the US aged >60 years. Blood pressure (BP) increases as a consequence of age-related structural changes in large arteries, which lead to loss of elasticity and reduced vascular compliance. Increased pulse wave velocity augments SBP, resulting in a high prevalence of isolated systolic hypertension. Because age itself elevates cardiovascular risk, effective treatment of hypertension in an older (aged >or=65 years) patient population prevents many more events per 1000 patients treated than treatment of younger hypertensive patients. Recommendations for treating hypertension are similar in older patients compared with the general population. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Prevention, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure recommends target BP goals of <140/90 mmHg for patients with uncomplicated hypertension, and <130/80 mmHg for those with diabetes mellitus or renal disease. Recent guidelines and position papers have extended these aggressive treatment goals to include patients with coronary artery disease, other types of vascular disease and heart failure. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of calcium channel antagonists (calcium channel blockers [CCBs]), low-dose diuretics, ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists (angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs]) in reducing the risk of stroke and other adverse cardiovascular outcomes in older patients; beta-adrenoceptor antagonists are less effective in terms of endpoint reduction. The majority of older patients require two or more drugs to achieve BP goals. Despite active treatment, half of these patients do not achieve target BP, in part because of the reluctance of physicians to intensify treatment, a phenomenon referred to as 'clinical inertia'. ARBs are effective antihypertensive agents in older patients and have been shown to reduce cardiovascular endpoints in patients with hypertension, diabetic nephropathy, cerebrovascular disease and heart failure. ARBs produce additive BP reduction when combined with diuretics or CCBs. They also have the advantage of placebo-like tolerability, and this contributes favourably to patient compliance with long-term treatment, which is a prerequisite for reducing morbidity and mortality.

Potassium, Magnesium, and Electrolyte Imbalance and Complications in Disease Management

Electrolyte balance is a critical issue in managing comorbid conditions in both diseased and elderly patients. Patients with hypertension and diabetes need careful regulation of their calcium and magnesium levels, whereas in patients with congestive heart failure, sodium and potassium levels also are critical. Herein we report the outcome of a round table discussion at which issues of renal magnesium clearance, magnesium and arrhythmic risk, ion balance in heart failure, diabetes, ischemic stress, oxidative stress in the cardiomyopathy of magnesium deficiency, roles of magnesium and potassium in bone metabolism and the aging population, and the role of electrolyte balance in hypertension have been discussed. In all these issues the maintaining homeostasis of potassium and magnesium is critical and the various therapies that impact on retaining these ions were discussed. Hallmark studies, i.e., Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial and Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction, have provided insight into treatment of patients with cardiovascular and progressive heart failure. These studies and the availability of potassium- and magnesium-sparing diuretics for use in these disorders provide relevant perspectives for treatment.

Clinical inertia: a common barrier to changing provider prescribing behavior

BACKGROUND

A cross-sectional content analysis nested within a randomized, controlled trial was conducted to collect information on provider responses to computer alerts regarding guideline recommendations for patients with suboptimal hypertension care.

METHODS

Participants were providers who cared for 1,017 patients with uncontrolled hypertension on a single antihypertensive agent within Veterans Affairs primary care clinics. All reasons for action or inaction were sorted into a framework to explain the variation in guideline adaptation.

RESULTS

The 184 negative provider responses to computer alerts contained explanations for not changing patient treatment; 76 responses to the alerts were positive, that is, the provider was going to make a change in antihypertensive regimen. The negative responses were categorized as: inertia of practice (66%), lack of agreement with specific guidelines (5%), patient-based factors (17%), environmental factors (10%), and lack of knowledge (2%). Most of the 135 providers classified as inertia of practice indicated, "Continue current medications and I will discuss at the next visit." The median number of days until the next visit was 45 days (interquartile range, 29 to 78 days).

DISCUSSION

Clinical inertia was the primary reason for failing to engage in otherwise indicated treatment change in a subgroup of patients. A framework was provided as a taxonomy for classification of provider barriers.

Saga of Renin-Angiotensin System and Calcium Channels in Hypertensive Diabetics: Does it Have a Therapeutic Edge?

Current understanding of the genesis of diabetic vascular disease suggests that vascular complications, such as atherosclerosis and hypertension, are associated with changes in structural and functional parameters. Experimental and epidemiological data suggest that activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system plays an important role in the development of micro- and macro-vascular complications. Most of the negative cardiovascular actions of angiotensin II are mediated through AT1 receptors, whereas the AT2 receptors mediate largely beneficial effects. Hence, compared to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), selective AT1 receptor blockers (ARBs) should provide additional end organ protection via AT2 receptors activation. Although ACEIs are useful therapeutically, they are being currently displaced by ARBs. Enhanced calcium ion channel activity is reported in vascular smooth muscles from diabetic animal models. Clinical benefits of calcium channel blockers (CCBs) in diabetic hypertensive patients are controversial, but there is increasing experimental evidence for the beneficial effects of dihydropyridine-type CCBs. Although the treatment of hypertension in diabetics reduces cardiovascular and microvascular complications, the ideal strategy for treating hypertension in diabetics has not been well defined and warrants a combination approach. Only limited clinical data regarding the use of ARBs in combination with CCBs in diabetics are available. The experimental data suggest that combination of a CCB and an AT1 receptor blocker, or a hypothetical dual blocker of AT1 receptors as well as of calcium channels would be an ideal regimen. There is, however, no conclusive clinical evidence to support the combined use of these drugs. This review highlights the available experimental data that support the therapeutic benefits of this combination.

Treatment of elderly hypertensive patients with a delayed-release verapamil formulation in a community-based trial

This report of a practice-based clinical trial describes an open-label, multicenter dose-titration study of an elderly (age >or=65 years) subset of patients (N=628) with systolic blood pressures between 140 and 179 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressures between 90 and 109 mm Hg, to assess the effects of the Chronotherapeutic Oral Drug Absorption System (CODAS) formulation of verapamil hydrochloride. After starting 200 mg/d at bedtime, dosing was titrated to a maximum of 400 mg/d at 4-week intervals to achieve a target blood pressure of <140/<90 mm Hg using morning blood pressure measurements. Target blood pressure was reached in 57.1% of the elderly patients with CODAS verapamil monotherapy. A diastolic response (<90 mm Hg or a 10 mm Hg reduction from baseline) was achieved in 89.5% of these subjects, and a systolic blood pressure response (<140 mm Hg or 10% reduction from baseline) was attained in 75.5%. The percentages of patients achieving target blood pressure or the diastolic and systolic blood pressure responses were comparable to those previously reported for younger patients. It is notable that although 359 of the 628 patients reached control on treatment, 182 of the remaining 269 noncontrolled patients were not titrated to higher doses, indicating that even with a well tolerated drug there may be reluctance among clinicians to increase doses. CODAS verapamil was found to be efficacious and well tolerated among elderly hypertensive patients in this community trial.