Midkine in plasma as a novel breast cancer marker

Role of Midkine in Cancer Drug Resistance: Regulators of Its Expression and Its Molecular Targeting

Molecules involved in drug resistance can be targeted for better therapeutic efficacies. Research on midkine (MDK) has escalated in the last few decades, which affirms a positive correlation between disease progression and MDK expression in most cancers and indicates its association with multi-drug resistance in cancer. MDK, a secretory cytokine found in blood, can be exploited as a potent biomarker for the non-invasive detection of drug resistance expressed in various cancers and, thereby, can be targeted. We summarize the current information on the involvement of MDK in drug resistance, and transcriptional regulators of its expression and highlight its potential as a cancer therapeutic target.

Midkine promotes metastasis and therapeutic resistance via mTOR/RPS6 in uveal melanoma

Uveal melanoma is a rare form of melanoma that originates in the eye, exerts widespread therapeutic resistance and displays an inherent propensity for hepatic metastases. Since metastatic disease is characterized by poor survival, there is an unmet clinical need to identify new therapeutic targets in uveal melanoma. Here, we show that the pleiotropic cytokine midkine is expressed in uveal melanoma. Midkine expression in primary uveal melanoma significantly correlates with poor survival and is elevated in patients that develop metastatic disease. Monosomy 3 and histopathological staging parameters are associated with midkine expression. In addition, we demonstrate that midkine promotes survival, migration across a barrier of hepatic sinusoid endothelial cells and resistance to AKT/mTOR inhibition. Furthermore, midkine is secreted and mediates mTOR activation by maintaining phosphorylation of the mTOR target RPS6 in uveal melanoma cells. Therefore, midkine is identified as a uveal melanoma cell survival factor that drives metastasis and therapeutic resistance, and could be exploited as a biomarker as well as a new therapeutic target. Implications: Midkine is identified as a survival factor that drives liver metastasis and therapeutic resistance in melanoma of the eye.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Receptor Drives Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth and Invasion by Activating Stat3-Midkine-Stat3 Loop

BACKGROUND

Activation of the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R)-mediated Janus kinase (JAK)1/2-Stat3 pathway contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis. Specifically, a previous study showed that IGF-1R inhibition downregulated Midkine expression in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

AIMS

The present study investigated the role of IGF-1R-JAK1/2-Stat3 and Midkine signaling in HCC, in addition to the molecular link between the IGF-1R-Stat3 pathway and Midkine.

METHODS

The expression levels of IGF-1R, Stat3, and Midkine were measured using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, following which the association of IGF-1R with Stat3 and Midkine expression was evaluated in HCC. The molecular link between the IGF-1R-Stat3 pathway and Midkine was then investigated in vitro before the effect of IGF-1R-Stat3 and Midkine signaling on HCC growth and invasion was studied in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

IGF-1R, Stat3, and Midkine mRNA overexpressions were all found in HCC, where the levels of Stat3 and Midkine mRNA correlated positively with those of IGF-1R. In addition, Midkine mRNA level also correlated positively with Stat3 mRNA expression in HCC tissues. IGF-1R promoted Stat3 activation, which in turn led to the upregulation of Midkine expression in Huh7 cells. Similarly, Midkine also promoted Stat3 activation through potentiating JAK1/2 phosphorylation. Persistent activation of this Stat3-Midkine-Stat3 positive feedback signal loop promoted HCC growth and invasion, the inhibition of which resulted in significant antitumor activities both in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Constitutive activation of the IGF-1R-mediated Stat3-Midkine-Stat3 positive feedback loop is present in HCC, the inhibition of which can serve as a potential therapeutic intervention strategy for HCC.

Midkine promotes breast cancer cell proliferation and migration by upregulating NR3C1 expression and activating the NF-κB pathway

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy in females and is the second leading cause of cancer-related death among women worldwide. Midkine (MDK) is a heparin-binding growth factor that is abnormally expressed at high levels in various human malignancies. We aimed to uncover the biological function and molecular mechanism of MDK in BC cells.

METHODS AND RESULTS

MDA-MB-231-shMDK and T47D-shMDK BC cells were established. The in vitro biological functions of MDK were demonstrated by CCK-8 assays, Transwell assays and Western blotting, whereas qPCR pathway arrays were implemented to explore the mechanism of MDK in BC cells. Functionally, we verified that silencing MDK significantly suppressed BC cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting the activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway and the nuclear distribution of NF-κB. Meanwhile, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) and a qPCR pathway array revealed that silencing MDK decreased the expression of NR3C1, a potential downstream target of the NF-κB pathway. We also confirmed that treatment with an NF-κB inhibitor suppressed NR3C1 expression in BC cells. Finally, we demonstrated that silencing NR3C1 repressed BC cell proliferation and migration.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight a novel mechanism by which MDK influences BC progression via regulation of the NF-κB-NR3C1 pathway.

Anticancer Effects of New Ceramides Isolated from the Red Sea Red Algae Hypnea musciformis in a Model of Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma: LC-HRMS Analysis Profile and Molecular Modeling

Different classes of phytochemicals were previously isolated from the Red Sea algae Hypnea musciformis as sterols, ketosteroids, fatty acids, and terpenoids. Herein, we report the isolation of three fatty acids-docosanoic acid 4, hexadecenoic acid 5, and alpha hydroxy octadecanoic acid 6-as well as three ceramides-A (1), B (2), and C (3)-with 9-methyl-sphinga-4,8-dienes and phytosphingosine bases. Additionally, different phytochemicals were determined using the liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-HRMS) technique. Ceramides A (1) and B (2) exhibited promising in vitro cytotoxic activity against the human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cell line when compared with doxorubicin as a positive control. Further in vivo study and biochemical estimation in a mouse model of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) revealed that both ceramides A (1) and B (2) at doses of 1 and 2 mg/kg, respectively, significantly decreased the tumor size in mice inoculated with EAC cells. The higher dose (2 mg/kg) of ceramide B (2) particularly expressed the most pronounced decrease in serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor -B (VEGF-B) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) markers, as well as the expression levels of the growth factor midkine in tumor tissue relative to the EAC control group. The highest expression of apoptotic factors, p53, Bax, and caspase 3 was observed in the same group that received 2 mg/kg of ceramide B (2). Molecular docking simulations suggested that ceramides A (1) and B (2) could bind in the deep grove between the H2 helix and the Ser240-P250 loop of p53, preventing its interaction with MDM2 and leading to its accumulation. In conclusion, this study reports the cytotoxic, apoptotic, and antiangiogenic effects of ceramides isolated from the Red Sea algae Hypnea musciformis in an experimental model of EAC.

An immune-related prognostic signature for predicting breast cancer recurrence

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer among women worldwide and is the second leading cause of cancer‐related deaths in women. Increasing evidence has validated the vital role of the immune system in BC development and recurrence. In this study, we identified an immune‐related prognostic signature of BRCA that could help delineate risk scores of poor outcome for each patient. This prognostic signature comprised information on five danger genes—TSLP, BIRC5, S100B, MDK, and S100P—and three protect genes RARRES3, BLNK, and ACO1. Kaplan‐Meier survival curve showed that patients classified as low‐risk according to optimum cut‐off risk score had better prognosis than those identified within the high‐risk group. ROC analysis indicated that the identified prognostic signature had excellent diagnostic efficiency for predicting 3‐ and 5‐years relapse‐free survival (RFS). Multivariate Cox regression analysis proved that the prognostic signature is independent of other clinical parameters. Stratification analysis demonstrated that the prognostic signature can be used to predict the RFS of BC patients within the same clinical subgroup. We also developed a nomogram to predict the RFS of patients. The calibration plots exhibited outstanding performance. The validation sets (GSE21653, GSE20711, and GSE88770) were used to external validation. More convincingly, the real time RT‐PCR results of clinical samples demonstrated that danger genes were significantly upregulated in BC samples, whereas protect genes were downregulated. In conclusion, we developed and validated an immune‐related prognostic signature, which exhibited excellent diagnostic efficiency in predicting the recurrence of BC, and will help to make personalized treatment decisions for patients at different risk score.

MicroRNA-188 inhibits biological activity of lung cancer stem cells through targeting MDK and mediating the Hippo pathway

New Findings

What is the central question of this study?

The aim was to investigate the function of microRNA‐188 in the biological characteristics of lung cancer stem cells and the molecular mechanisms involved.

What is the main finding and its importance?

This study highlights a new molecular mechanism involving microRNA‐188, MDK and the Hippo signalling pathway that plays a suppressive role in biological activity of lung cancer stem cells. This finding might offer new insights into gene‐based therapy for lung cancer.

Abstract

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been implicated in lung cancer and reported as new promising diagnostic and therapeutic tools for cancer control. Here, we investigated the action of microRNA‐188 (miR‐188) in lung cancer stem cells. We first tested miR‐188 expression in clinical samples of lung cancer patients, and a low expression profile of miR‐188 was found. Next, we analysed the role of miR‐188 in lung cancer stem cells with cell growth assays. To verify the in vitro results, we used a xenograft model to validate the capability of miR‐188 in tumorigenesis. Overexpression of miR‐188 reduced viability and metastasis of cancer stem cells. Similar results were reproduced in vivo, where overexpression of miR‐188 retarded tumour growth in mice. We also identified MDK as a target of miR‐188, and overexpression of MDK was found in lung cancer samples. Overexpressed MDK promoted the malignant behaviours of lung cancer stem cells. In addition, the Hippo pathway was found to be inactivated in lung cancer tissues, presenting as increased levels of YAP and TAZ. Suppression of the Hippo pathway also enhanced lung cancer stem cell activity and promoted the growth of xenograft tumours. To sum up, our results reveal that miR‐188 inhibits the malignant behaviours of lung cancer stem cells and the growth of xenograft tumours. This study might offer new insights into gene‐based therapies for cancer.

Midkine (MDK) growth factor: a key player in cancer progression and a promising therapeutic target

Midkine is a heparin-binding growth factor, originally reported as the product of a retinoic acid-responsive gene during embryogenesis, but currently viewed as a multifaceted factor contributing to both normal tissue homeostasis and disease development. Midkine is abnormally expressed at high levels in various human malignancies and acts as a mediator for the acquisition of critical hallmarks of cancer, including cell growth, survival, metastasis, migration, and angiogenesis. Several studies have investigated the role of midkine as a cancer biomarker for the detection, prognosis, and management of cancer, as well as for monitoring the response to cancer treatment. Moreover, several efforts are also being made to elucidate its underlying mechanisms in therapeutic resistance and immunomodulation within the tumor microenvironment. We hereby summarize the current knowledge on midkine expression and function in cancer development and progression, and highlight its promising potential as a cancer biomarker and as a future therapeutic target in personalized cancer medicine.

Diagnostic accuracy of midkine for hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis

Background

There have been many reports on midkine as a promising marker in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the results are inconsistent and even conflicting.

Methods

This meta‐analysis was performed to investigate the accuracy of midkine in the diagnosis of HCC. Meta‐DiSc 1.4 software was used to extract data and to calculate the overall sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio (PLR), negative likelihood ratio (NLR), and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR). Data are presented as forest plots and summary receiver operating characteristic (SROC) curve analysis was used to summarize the overall test performance.

Results

Ten studies with a total of 753 HCC patients and 977 non‐HCC patients were included. The overall pooled diagnostic data were as follows: the pooled sensitivity of 0.86 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 083–0.88), the pooled specificity of 0.75 (95% CI: 0.73–0.78), the pooled PLR of 4.71 (95% CI: 2.80–7.90), the pooled NLR of 0.18 (95% CI: 0.11–0.30), and the pooled DOR of 36.83 (95% CI: 13.56–100.05). The area under curve value was 0.9266 in the overall SROC curve.

Conclusion

Midkine has moderate diagnostic accuracy for HCC. Due to the design limitations, results inpublished studies should be carefully interpreted. In addition, more well‐designed studies with large sample sizes should be performed to rigorously evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the MDK.

Plasma midkine concentrations in healthy children, children with increased and decreased adiposity, and children with short stature

BACKGROUND

Midkine (MDK), one of the heparin-binding growth factors, is highly expressed in multiple organs during embryogenesis. Plasma concentrations have been reported to be elevated in patients with a variety of malignancies, in adults with obesity, and in children with short stature, diabetes, and obesity. However, the concentrations in healthy children and their relationships to age, nutrition, and linear growth have not been well studied.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Plasma MDK was measured by immunoassay in 222 healthy, normal-weight children (age 0-18 yrs, 101 boys), 206 healthy adults (age 18-91 yrs, 60 males), 61 children with BMI ≥ 95th percentile (age 4-18 yrs, 20 boys), 20 girls and young women with anorexia nervosa (age 14-23 yrs), and 75 children with idiopathic short stature (age 3-18 yrs, 42 boys). Body fat was evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in a subset of subjects. The associations of MDK with age, sex, adiposity, race/ethnicity and stature were evaluated.

RESULTS

In healthy children, plasma MDK concentrations declined with age (r = -0.54, P < 0.001) with values highest in infants. The decline occurred primarily during the first year of life. Plasma MDK did not significantly differ between males and females or between race/ethnic groups. MDK concentrations were not correlated with BMI SDS, fat mass (kg) or percent total body fat, and no difference in MDK was found between children with anorexia nervosa, healthy weight and obesity. For children with idiopathic short stature, MDK concentrations did not differ significantly from normal height subjects, or according to height SDS or IGF-1 SDS.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy children, plasma MDK concentrations declined with age and were not significantly associated with sex, adiposity, or stature-for-age. These findings provide useful reference data for studies of plasma MDK in children with malignancies and other pathological conditions.

The effectiveness of serum midkine in detecting esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Studies investigating serum midkine (s-MK) concentrations have employed a polyclonal antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay system (ELISA), because the targeted polyclonal antibody has low specificity. We used a newly developed monoclonal antibody ELISA to investigate the prognostic and diagnostic capabilities of s-MK in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.

METHODS

Serum samples from 102 patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma were analyzed using a newly developed monoclonal antibody ELISA specifically developed to detect s-MK. s-MK cutoff value was set at 421 pg/mL (mean + 2 SD) based on data from healthy controls. Clinicopathological characteristics, including tumor stage and positivity rates for two conventional tumor markers, serum p53 (s-p53-Abs) antibodies and SCC-antigen, were evaluated to assess a possible correlation with s-MK. The prognostic capability of a high s-MK level was evaluated using univariate and multivariate methods.

RESULTS

Overall positive rate for s-MK concentrations: 21%. Large tumors (> 50 mm) showed significantly higher concentrations than smaller specimens, but other clinicopathological factors were not associated with s-MK. A combination assay using SCC-antigen together with s-p53-Abs and s-MK clearly increased our capability to detect esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Although the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.310), the high s-MK group experienced worse overall survival than our low s-MK group.

CONCLUSIONS

s-MK and conventional tumor marker combination increased our capability to detect esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Although s-MK might be associated with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma progression, it was not an independent risk factor reducing patient survival. This study was registered as UMIN000014530.

Midkine Is a Potential Urinary Biomarker for Non-Invasive Detection of Bladder Cancer with Microscopic Hematuria

BACKGROUND

To determine the role of Midkine (MDK) in non-invasive detection of bladder cancer (Bca) and the relationship with Ki67.

METHODS

Sixty-five Bca patients and 55 non-Bca patients or healthy volunteers were enrolled and voided urine samples were prospectively obtained on the first day of enrollment. Tissue samples were collected by surgery. MDK and Ki67 expressions were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and Western Blot (WB). Specificity and sensitivity of MDK mRNA testing in the detection of Bca were determined by Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (ROC). The relationship between MDK and Ki67 was also assessed.

RESULTS

MDK was overexpressed in Bca tissues than that in the non-cancer tissues. The specificity and sensitivity for MDK mRNA testing in urine in the identification of Bca was 80% and 72.3%. MDK detected 85.7% of high-grade tumors, 87.5% of muscle-invasive tumors and 79.4% of tumors larger than 3 cm in patients without gross hematuria. Microscopic hematuria may even increase the detection rate of Bca by MDK testing. Furthermore, the correlation of MDK and Ki67 was found positive.

CONCLUSION

MDK was overexpressed in Bca tissues and positively correlated with Ki67. MDK might be a potential biomarker for the detection of Bca, especially for those without gross hematuria but with microscopic hematuria.

Serum Midkine Levels in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

BACKGROUND

Midkine (MK) induces inflammation and could inhibit inducible regulatory T cell differentiation. These reports suggest that MK may play a role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease including SLE, but data about MK in SLE patients was still limited, and the role of Midkine in SLE is largely unknown.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to compare serum level MK in SLE patients and control, also analysed the relationship between the serum MK level and disease activity in SLE.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted in Adam Malik Hospital from January-June 2017. Diagnosis of SLE was established according to the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics (SLICC) classification criteria, and disease activity was assessed using the Mexican Systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index (MEX-SLEDAI). Subjects with evidence of malignancy and systemic disease (pulmonary, kidney, liver, metabolic disorder, etc.) were excluded. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 22nd version. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

There were 90 subjects and divided into 2 groups: SLE patients group (n=40) and healthy control groups (n = 50). Midkine levels were increased in the serum of SLE patients compared by health control. There was a significant difference in the median serum Midkine levels between SLE patients and healthy control (P < 0.001). Elevated Midkine serum levels were a significant difference between active disease and remission (P = 0.018).

CONCLUSION

Elevated Midkine serum level could be a marker of SLE disease activity and have a role in the pathogenesis of SLE.

Exosomal miR-9 inhibits angiogenesis by targeting MDK and regulating PDK/AKT pathway in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Background

Exosomes are small vesicles containing a wide range of functional proteins, mRNA and miRNA. Exosomal miRNAs from cancer cells play crucial roles in mediating cell-cell communication and tumor-microenvironment cross talk, specifically in enabling metastasis and promoting angiogenesis. We focused on miR-9 that was identified as a tumor suppressor previously in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tumorigenesis.

Methods

Differential centrifugation, transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis were used to isolate and identify exosomes. Quantitative PCR and western blotting analysis were used to detect miR-9, pri-miR-9, CD63, TSG101, MDK, P70S6K P-Ser424 and PDK1 P-Ser241 expression. Laser confocal microscopy was used to trace exosomal miR-9 secreted by NPC cells into HUVECs. The effect of exosomal miR-9 on cell migration and tube formation of HUVECs in vivo and vitro was assessed by using migration assay, tube formation assay and matrigel plug assay, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay were utilized to confirm the binding of exosomal miR-9 to the 3′untranslated region (3′-UTR) of MDK, while Phosphorylation Array was performed to identify AKT Pathway in HUVECs treated with exosomal miR-9. Furthermore, Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH) was used to detected miR-9, CD31 and MDK expression in human NPC tumor samples.

Results

NPC cells transfected with miR-9-overexpressing lentivirus, released miR-9 in exosomes. Exosomal miR-9 directly suppressed its target gene - MDK in endothelial cells. Mechanistic analyses revealed that exosomal miR-9 from NPC cells inhibited endothelial tube formation and migration by targeting MDK and regulating PDK/AKT signaling pathway. Additionally, the level of MDK was upregulated in NPC tumor samples and was positively correlated with microvessel density. Notably, the level of exosomal miR-9 was positively correlated with overall survival, and MDK overexpression was positively associated with poor prognosis in NPC patients, suggesting the clinical relevance and prognostic value of exosomal miR-9 and MDK.

Conclusions

Taken together, our data identify an extracellular anti-angiogenic role for tumor-derived, exosome-associated miR-9 in NPC tumorigenesis and prompt further investigation into exosome-based therapies for cancer treatment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13046-018-0814-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Early lineage segregation of multipotent embryonic mammary gland progenitors

The mammary gland (MG) is composed of basal cells (BCs) and luminal cells (LCs). While it is generally believed that MG arises from embryonic multipotent progenitors (EMPs), it remains unclear when lineage restriction occurs and what are the mechanisms responsible for the switch from multipotency to unipotency during MG morphogenesis. Here, we performed multicolor lineage tracing and assessed the fate of single progenitors and demonstrated the existence of a developmental switch from multipotency to unipotency during embryonic MG development. Molecular profiling and single cell RNA-seq revealed that EMPs express a unique hybrid basal and luminal signature and the factors associated with the different lineages. Sustained p63 expression in EMPs promotes unipotent BC fate and was sufficient to reprogram adult LCs into BCs by promoting an intermediate hybrid multipotent like state. Altogether, this study identifies the timing and the mechanisms mediating the early lineage segregation of multipotent progenitors during MG development.

Positive expression of Midkine predicts early recurrence and poor prognosis of initially resectable combined hepatocellular cholangiocarcinoma

Background

Post-surgical prognosis is usually poor for combined hepatocellular cholangiocarcinoma (CHCC-CC), a rare primary liver cancer. Although midkine (MK) is a prognostic biomarker for several known cancers, it is not known whether it can be used as such in resectable CHCC-CC. This study examined whether MK expression can predict recurrence and survival in patients with resectable CHCC-CC.

Methods

We retrospectively enrolled 52 patients with resectable CHCC-CC who had received curative hepatic resections. MK expression was assessed in post-surgical immunohistochemical studies of specimens in paraffin blocks. Clinical outcomes were analyzed from medical records.

Results

Two-year disease-free and three-year overall survival rates were 42.1% and 44.6%. MK was expressed in 30 patients. Univariate analysis showed patients positively expressing MK had a significantly poorer 2-year disease free and three-year overall survival. Multivariate analysis found positive MK expression independently predicted recurrence.

Conclusions

Positive expression of MK predicts poor prognosis in patients with resectable CHCC-CC.

Serum Midkine and Osteopontin Levels as Diagnostic Biomarkers of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Introduction

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) is a primary tumor of the liver; it is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Osteopontin (OPN) is a phosphorylated glycoprotein which is implicated in enhancing invasive and metastatic progression of many tumors. Midkine (MDK) is a 13-kDa small heparin-binding growth factor which plays a significant role in carcinogenesis related activities. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of serum Midkine and Osteopontin levels as diagnostic biomarkers of Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Methods

This study was carried out from January 2014 to January 2016 in Internal Medicine, Clinical Oncology and Tropical Medicine Departments of Tanta University Hospital (Egypt). One hundred forty subjects were enrolled in our study, they were divided into four groups: Group I included 35 patients presented with HCV without cirrhosis; Group II included 35 patients presented with HCV with liver cirrhosis; Group III included 35 patients presented with HCC on top of cirrhosis; and Group IV included 35 apparently healthy subjects as a control group. The studied groups were age and sex matched. Routine and specific (OPN and MDK) laboratory investigations were performed in all included subjects.

Results

The main finding of the present work was that the mean serum levels of OPN and MDK were significantly elevated in HCC patients either by comparing HCC patients vs. HCV patients without cirrhosis, HCC patients vs. HCV patients with cirrhosis or HCC patients vs. healthy subjects. Interestingly, by performing a ROC analysis, serum MDK levels had better sensitivity and specificity than OPN and AFP levels in the diagnosis of HCC (98.4 %, 97.1% and 97%) and (96.2%, 95.3% and 95%) for MDK, OPN and AFP respectively.

Conclusion

Serum MDK and OPN levels are comparable to AFP levels and could be used as potential diagnostic biomarkers of HCC in HCV patients with liver cirrhosis and in the prediction of liver cirrhosis in HCV patients without cirrhosis.

Pleiotrophin as a potential biomarker in breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Pleiotrophin (PTN), a multifunctional growth factor, is up-regulated in many tumors. PTN is reported to play an important role in the regulation of several cellular processes. The objective of this study is to evaluate the clinical significance of PTN as a tumor marker in breast cancer (BC).

METHODS

Serum PTN levels were detected in 105 BC patients and 40 healthy volunteers using ELISA. In addition, PTN expression was examined in 80 BC tissues in a nested case-control study by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Serum PTN levels were elevated in BC patients compared to healthy controls. Area under receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.878 (95% CI: 0.824-0.932). The sensitivity of serum PTN was superior to CEA and CA15-3. High serum PTN levels were associated with TNM stage, histology grade, and distant metastasis. Moreover, serum PTN levels decreased significantly after surgical treatment. In BC tissues, PTN expression was significantly higher in BC tissues relative to paired paracancerous tissues. Tissue PTN expression proved to be a prognostic factor for breast cancer according to multivariable logistic regression analysis.

CONCLUSION

PTN could be considered as a potential biomarker for the presence of breast cancer.

Quantitative comparison of immunohistochemical and PCR analysis of midkine expression in breast cancer types and serum midkine level

BACKGROUND/AIM

Midkine (MK), a heparin-binding growth factor, has an important role in cancer progression. The aim of this study was to determine MK expression in breast tissue and the preoperative and postoperative serum levels of patients with breast cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty-one patients with breast cancer participated in our study. The MK serum levels were measured pre- and postoperatively for these patients. We also analyzed breast tissues of the 61 patients immunohistochemically. We examined serum midkine levels in 49 healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

MK expression was observed in 44 (72.1%) of 61 breast cancer patients. In breast cancer patients the serum MK levels (3.68 ± 2.13 ng/mL (mean ± SD)) were significantly higher than in the control group (1.77 ± 0.38 ng/mL) before tumor removal (P = 0.000). After tumor removal, serum MK levels (2.47 ± 1.00 ng/mL) were significantly (P = 0.000) decreased according to preoperative levels. Increased serum levels of MK were related with tumor stages when clinical parameters were analyzed.

CONCLUSION

We found that increased serum MK levels and protein expressions were associated with the carcinogenesis of breast cancer. MK levels decreased after tumor removal. According to our findings, MK might be a useful tumor marker for patients with breast cancer.

MDK Protein Overexpression Correlates with the Malignant Status and Prognosis of Non-small Cell Lung Cancer

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Midkine (MDK) is a heparin-binding growth factor and is overexpressed in various types of human cancer. However, little is known about the clinical significance of MDK in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The aim of this study was to measure MDK protein levels in patients with NSCLC and to explore its clinical significance.

METHODS

The expression status of MDK in NSCLC at Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO accession number: GSE19804) was observed. The expression of MDK mRNA and protein was examined in NSCLC tissues and normal lung tissues through real-time PCR and Western blot. Meanwhile, the relationship of MDK protein expression levels with clinical characteristics of 186 NSCLC patients was analyzed by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

MDK expression was increased in NSCLC tissues compared with paired normal lung tissues in microarray data (GSE19804). MDK mRNA and protein expression were obviously increased in NSCLC tissues than in paired adjacent normal lung tissues. Using immunohistochemistry, MDK protein overexpression was positively correlated with status of clinical stage, T classification, N classification, and M classification in NSCLC patients. In survival analysis, patients with higher MDK protein expression had a significantly shorter overall survival time than did patients with lower MDK protein expression. Multivariate analysis indicated that the MDK protein overexpression was an independent poor prognostic indicator for patients with NSCLC.

CONCLUSIONS

MDK plays an important role in NSCLC progression and prognosis and may act as a convincing prognostic indicator for NSCLC patients.

The clinical and prognostic significance of midkine in breast cancer patients

Midkine overexpression has been shown to be a tumor biomarker in several types of human cancer, but little is known about the clinical significance of midkine in breast cancer patients. The aim of this study was to analyze the expression of midkine in breast cancer and its correlation with clinicopathological characteristics, including breast cancer patient's survival. The expression status of midkine in breast cancer from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO accession number: GDS3853) was observed initially. Furthermore, the expression of midkine messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein was examined in breast cancer and normal mammary tissues through real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Moreover, the relationship of midkine protein expression with clinical characteristics of 170 breast cancer patients was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. In our results, midkine was up-expressed in breast cancer tissues compared with normal mammary tissues in microarray data (GDS3853). Midkine mRNA and protein expression was significantly increased in breast cancer tissues than in normal mammary tissues. By immunohistochemistry, high levels of midkine protein were positively associated with the status of clinical stage, T classification, N classification, and M classification in breast cancer patients. Furthermore, midkine overexpression was an independent poor prognostic indicator for the survival of patients with breast cancer. In conclusion, overexpression of midkine protein serves as an unfavorable prognostic biomarker in breast cancer patients.

Evaluation of serum midkine as a biomarker in differentiated thyroid cancer

AIMS

Midkine is a multifunctional cytokine identified to be a promising cancer biomarker. We aimed to prospectively investigate serum midkine as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC).

MAIN METHODS

162 patients with thyroid nodules participated in the surgical cohort (post-surgical pathology proved 70 cases with DTC and 92 cases with benign thyroid nodules), 75 healthy subjects served as control. Diagnostic values of pre-surgical midkine and thyroglobulin for DTC were conducted by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. 214 DTC patients participated in the (131)I treatment cohort. Prognostic values of pre-(131)I-ablative midkine and thyroglobulin to predict (131)I-avid metastases were performed by ROC curves. Metastasis-free survival was analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method.

KEY FINDINGS

Much better diagnostic capability of midkine than thyroglobulin was shown to differentiate DTC from benign thyroid nodules, with cut-off midkine value of 323.12pg/ml and diagnostic accuracy of 75.31%. Nearly similar diagnostic capabilities of midkine and thyroglobulin were shown to distinguish DTC from normal participants. Pre-(131)I-ablative thyroglobulin demonstrated perfect ability to predict metastases, with cut-off value and diagnostic accuracy of 19.50ng/ml and 96.73%. Midkine also performed well with a cut-off value and diagnostic accuracy of 504.71pg/ml and 89.25%. DTC patients with midkine or thyroglobulin levels higher than those of thresholds (500pg/ml or 20ng/ml) showed a significantly worse (131)I-avid metastasis-free survival by the Kaplan-Meier method (P<0.01).

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results show that midkine is as good as or even better than thyroglobulin to screen patients with thyroid nodules for DTC before surgery, and to predict whether metastases exist before the first (131)I ablative therapy.

Transcriptional factor specificity protein 1 (SP1) promotes the proliferation of glioma cells by up-regulating midkine (MDK)

Midkine (MDK) expression is associated with the proliferation of many cancers, including glioma. However, the upstream signaling that leads to MDK accumulation remains elusive. This study investigates the molecular mechanism that induces MDK overexpression in human glioma. The Repository for Molecular Brain Neoplasia Data was analyzed to identify potential MDK regulators. Expression of MDK and specificity protein 1 (SP1) was compared in glioma specimens. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay was used to confirm the transcriptional regulation. MDK-force-expressed, SP1-silenced glioma cells were used to test rescue effects in vitro and in vivo. MDK and SP1 expression in gliomas was significantly higher than in adjacent tissues and was positively correlated in glioma clinical samples and cell lines. The promoter of the human MDK gene has a putative SP1 binding site. SP1 binds to the promoter of the MDK gene and directly regulates MDK expression. MDK or SP1 gene silencing inhibited the proliferation of glioma cells and reduced the tumor volume in nude mice. Overexpression of MDK in SP1-silenced cells could partially rescue the SP1 inhibition effects in vivo and in vitro. SP1 directly up-regulated the expression of MDK, and the SP1-MDK axis cooperated in glioma tumorigenesis.

Transcriptome analysis of the hormone-sensing cells in mammary epithelial reveals dynamic changes in early pregnancy

Background

Alveoli, the milk-producing units of the mammary gland, are generated during pregnancy by collaboration of different epithelial cell types. We present the first analysis of transcriptional changes within the hormone sensing population during pregnancy. Hormone-receptor positive (HR+) cells play a key role in the initiation of alveologenesis as they sense systemic hormonal changes and translate these into local instructions for neighboring HR- cells. We recently showed that IGF2 is produced specifically by HR+ cells in early pregnancy, but is undetectable in the virgin state. Here, we define the transcriptome of HR+ cells in early pregnancy with the aim to elucidate additional changes that are unique for this dynamic developmental time window.

Results

We harvested mammary glands from virgin, 3-day and 7-day pregnant mice and isolated a few hundred hormone-sensing cells per animal by FACS for microarray analysis. There was a high concordance between animals with a clear induction of cell cycle progression genes at day 3 of pregnancy and molecules involved in paracrine signalling at day 7.

Conclusions

These findings underscore the proliferative capacity of HR+ cells upon specific stimuli and elucidate developmentally-restricted changes in cellular communication. Since the majority of breast cancers are HR+, with a variable proportion of HR+ cells per tumor, we anticipate that this data set will aid further studies into the regulation of HR+ cell proliferation and the role of heterotypic signalling within tumors.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12861-015-0058-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Measuring midkine: the utility of midkine as a biomarker in cancer and other diseases

Midkine (MK) is a pleiotropic growth factor prominently expressed during embryogenesis but down-regulated to neglible levels in healthy adults. Many published studies have demonstrated striking MK overexpression compared with healthy controls in various pathologies, including ischaemia, inflammation, autoimmunity and, most notably, in many cancers. MK expression is detectable in biopsies of diseased, but not healthy, tissues. Significantly, because it is a soluble cytokine, elevated MK is readily apparent in the blood and other body fluids such as urine and CSF, making MK a relatively convenient, accessible, non-invasive and inexpensive biomarker for population screening and early disease detection. The first diagnostic tests that quantify MK are just now receiving regulatory clearance and entering the clinic. This review examines the current state of knowledge pertaining to MK as a biomarker and highlights promising indications and clinical settings where measuring MK could make a difference to patient treatment. I also raise outstanding questions about reported variants of MK as well as MK's bio-distribution in vivo. Answering these questions in future studies will enhance our understanding of the significance of measured MK levels in both patients and healthy subjects, and may reveal further opportunities for measuring MK to diagnose disease. MK has already proven to be a biomarker that can significantly improve detection, management and treatment of cancer, and there is significant promise for developing further MK-based diagnostics in the future.

The value of serum midkine level in diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma

Background and Aim. Identification of sensitive biomarkers to improve early diagnosis of HCC is needed. We aimed to evaluate serum midkine (MDK) as a biomarker for HCC diagnosis. Patients and Methods. 40 HCCs, 30 liver cirrhosis patients, and 30 healthy subjects were enrolled. Serum MDK using ELISA was measured in all included subjects. Results. Serum MDK was significantly elevated in HCC group compared to cirrhotic and healthy control groups (0.625 versus 0.15 and 0.125 ng/mL), respectively. No significant association was found between MDK and either BCLC stage, tumor diameter, tumor number, or AFP level. Receiver operating characteristic curve showed that best cutoff for MDK and AFP was 0.387 and 88.5 ng/mL, respectively. Area under the curve of MDK was significantly larger than that of AFP (0.941 versus 0.671). The sensitivity of MDK at 0.387 ng/mL for HCC diagnosis was significantly higher than that of AFP at cutoffs 20, 88.5, and 200 ng/mL (92.5 versus 62.5, 40, and 25%), respectively. Sensitivity of MDK reached 93.3% in patients with AFP <20 ng/mL. Moreover, MDK at 0.387 ng/mL had significant better sensitivity than AFP at 20 ng/mL in distinguishing HCC from BCLC 0/A (90 versus 40%). Conclusion. Serum MDK might be a potential diagnostic marker for HCC particularity in its early stages.

Involvement of midkine in neuroblastoma tumourigenesis

Midkine is highly expressed in various cancers, including neuroblastoma, one of the most malignant paediatric solid tumours known. Also, it has been shown to be useful as a tumour marker, a prognosis factor and a target of molecular therapy. Several molecular tools (e.g. siRNA, antibodies and RNA aptamer) have been used to establish a midkine-targeted therapy. The involvement of midkine in tumourigenesis has been demonstrated in vivo in a mouse neuroblastoma model, where targeting it with an RNA aptamer was shown to be an effective treatment for xenografted tumours. Chemoresistance is one of the notable phenotypes regulated by midkine in various cancer cell types. In pancreatic tumours and glioma cells, midkine is expressed in chemoresistant cells and is involved in the survival of these cells in the presence of anticancer drugs. In contrast to these tumours, midkine was found to be expressed in every neuroblastoma cell line tested and the knockdown of midkine alone was sufficient to suppress their growth. These results indicate that neuroblastoma cells are highly dependent on midkine and that a midkine-targeted therapy could exert a significant effect in these cells. However, to achieve a midkine-targeted therapy for high-risk neuroblastoma patients, the further refinement of the RNA aptamer or antibody as tools and the elucidation of midkine signalling are immediate issues that need to be resolved. Regarding the latter, although it has been shown that Notch2 functions as a receptor in neuroblastoma cells, it is likely that other receptors (e.g. anaplastic lymphoma kinase) are also involved in midkine signalling.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Midkine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-4.

Midkine and syndecan‑1 levels correlate with the progression of malignant gastric cardiac adenocarcinoma

The present study aimed to determine whether the expression levels of midkine (MK) and syndecan‑1 correlate with the malignant progression and poor prognosis of gastric cardiac adenocarcinoma (GCA). GCA tissue samples (n=72) were obtained from the Department of Pathology of the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology (Luoyang, China). The paraffin‑embedded samples had been surgically resected and pathologically diagnosed between 2007 and 2009. Normal gastric cardiac biopsy specimens (n=40) were also collected as the control. The expression levels of MK and syndecan‑1 were assessed by immunohistochemistry using the high‑sensitivity streptavidin‑peroxidase method. Statistical analysis was performed on the data obtained using the SPSS 17.0 statistics package. MK expression was detected in 76.4% of GCA samples and 5% of normal gastric cardiac mucosa specimens. A significant positive correlation was observed between the expression levels of MK and the infiltrative depth of the tumor, the presence of lymph node metastasis and the prognosis of the patients (P<0.05). Syndecan‑1 expression was detected in 38.9% of GCA samples and 100% of normal gastric cardiac mucosa samples. The expression levels of syndecan‑1 were negatively correlated with the grade of differentiation, serosal membrane invasion, lymph node metastasis and the patient's prognosis (P<0.05). Notably, the expression levels of MK and syndecan‑1 were inversely correlated (r=‑0.352, P<0.01) in the GCA tissue samples. These results suggest that high expression levels of MK in GCA tissues may indicate a differentiation stage that is characteristic of malignancy, a late clinical stage and a poor prognosis, whereas increased syndecan‑1 levels may indicate a high degree of differentiation, an early clinical stage and a favorable prognosis. MK and syndecan‑1 may serve as important biomarkers for monitoring the development and progression of GCA.

Midkine expression in high grade gliomas: Correlation of this novel marker with proliferation and survival in human gliomas

BACKGROUND

High-grade primary glioma have poor prognosis and predictive biomarkers is very important. Midkine (MDK), a heparin-binding growth factor, is important in regulating carcinogenesis, cell proliferation, mitogenesis, and angiogenesis. This study aimed to identify over-expression of MDK in gliomas and correlate this with clinical outcomes. The authors put forward their hypothesis correlating proliferation and poor survival with over-expression of this novel protein.

METHODS

Two datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) included human data of 100 and 180 patients, respectively. The MDK expression, World Health Organization (WHO) pathological grade, sex, age, and survival time were identified for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

A search of the GEO profile revealed that MDK expression level was statistically greater in the WHO grade IV compared with grade II (P = 0.002), in grades III and IV compared with nontumor control (P = 0.044 and P < 0.001, respectively) after adjustments using the Bonferroni method. By the Kaplan-Meier survival curve, the high MDK expression group had poorer survival outcome (2.38-fold hazard, 95% confidence interval: 1.22-4.63) than the low MDK expression group after adjustments for WHO grade and age.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, there is a positive correlation between MDK expression and WHO grading of human gliomas. Moreover, MDK over-expression is significant correlated to poor survival outcome in high-grade, suggesting that MDK may be an important therapeutic target.

Midkine promotes perineural invasion in human pancreatic cancer

AIM: To investigate midkine (MK) and syndecan-3 protein expression in pancreatic cancer by immunohistochemistry, and to analyze their correlation with clinicopathological features, perineural invasion, and prognosis.

METHODS: Pancreatic cancer tissues (including adequately sized tumor tissue samples and tissue samples taken from areas less than 2.0 cm around the tumor) were taken from 42 patients who were undergoing a partial duodenopancreatectomy. MK and syndecan-3 proteins were detected by immunohistochemistry using a standardized streptavidin-peroxidase method, and analyzed for their correlation with clinicopathological features, perineural invasion, and prognosis. Associations of neural invasion with aggressive characteristics of pancreatic cancer and the presence of perineural invasion were assessed by two independent observers blinded to the patient status.

RESULTS: MK and syndecan-3 were found in 26 (61.9%) and 24 (57.1%) specimens, respectively. MK and syndecan-3 expression was associated with perineural invasion (P = 0.018 and 0.031, respectively). High MK expression was closely associated with advanced tumor, node and metastasis stage (P = 0.008), lymph node metastasis (P = 0.042), and decreased postoperative survival at 3 years (51.0% vs 21.8%, P = 0.001). Syndecan-3 levels were correlated with tumor size (P = 0.028). Patients who were syndecan-3 negative had a higher cumulative survival rate than those who were positive, but the difference was not significant (44.0% vs 23.0%, P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION: MK and syndecan-3 are frequently expressed in pancreatic cancer and associated with perineural invasion. High expression of MK and syndecan-3 may contribute to the highly perineural invasion and poor prognosis of human pancreatic cancer.

Structure–function analysis of full-length midkine reveals novel residues important for heparin binding and zebrafish embryogenesis

Midkine is a heparin-binding di-domain growth factor, implicated in many biological processes as diverse as angiogenesis, neurogenesis and tumorigenesis. Elevated midkine levels reflect poor prognosis for many carcinomas, yet the molecular and cellular mechanisms orchestrating its activity remain unclear. At the present time, the individual structures of isolated half domains of human midkine are known and its functionally active C-terminal half domain remains a popular therapeutic target. In the present study, we determined the structure of full-length zebrafish midkine and show that it interacts with fondaparinux (a synthetic highly sulfated pentasaccharide) and natural heparin through a previously uncharacterized, but highly conserved, hinge region. Mutating six consecutive residues in the conserved hinge to glycine strongly abates heparin binding and midkine embryogenic activity. In contrast with previous in vitro studies, we found that the isolated C-terminal half domain is not active in vivo in embryos. Instead, we have demonstrated that the N-terminal half domain is needed to enhance heparin binding and mediate midkine embryogenic activity surprisingly in both heparin-dependent and -independent manners. Our findings provide new insights into the structural features of full-length midkine relevant for embryogenesis, and unravel additional therapeutic routes targeting the N-terminal half domain and conserved hinge.

Diagnostic and predictive role of cell-free midkine in malignant pleural effusions

PURPOSE

The detection of circulating nucleic acids has long been explored for the diagnosis and prognosis of a variety of clinical conditions. The aim of this study was to detect the cell-free mRNA expression of midkine (MK) in patients with effusions and its potential diagnostic and predictive value.

METHODS

Effusions were collected prospectively from 168 patients. The cell-free RNA was extracted from effusions, and the mRNA expression of MK was detected using real-time PCR. The expression of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and biochemical markers in effusions were also assayed. Primary cancer cells were isolated from the malignant effusions (n = 46). Compared with culture cell lines, the response of these cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents was determined by CCK-8 assay.

RESULTS

The expression of cell-free MK mRNA was significantly higher in the malignant group than in the benign group (0.13 vs 0.01, P < 0.001). The sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy of MK were 77.5 and 81.5 %, while a combination of CEA and MK reached 86.9 % sensitivity and 88.7 % accuracy. In addition, cell-free MK mRNA expression was significantly correlated with inhibitory rate of cisplatin (R = -0.72, P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Measurement of cell-free MK mRNA levels in effusion supernatant yields a high diagnostic accuracy and a potential predictive value.

Midkine in the pathology of cancer, neural disease, and inflammation

Midkine (MK) is a heparin-binding growth factor involved in various cellular processes such as cellular proliferation, survival, and migration. In addition to these typical growth factor activities, MK exhibits several other activities related to fibrinolysis, blood pressure, host defense and other processes. Many cell-surface receptors have been identified to account for the multiple biological activities of MK. The expression of MK is frequently upregulated in many types of human carcinoma. Moreover, blood MK levels are closely correlated with patient outcome. Knockdown and blockade of MK suppress tumorigenesis and tumor development. Thus, MK serves as a tumor marker and a molecular target for cancer therapy. Furthermore, there is growing evidence that MK plays pivotal roles in neural and inflammatory diseases. Understanding of the mechanisms of action of MK is expected to create new therapeutic options for several human diseases.

A conjugate of an anti-midkine single-chain variable fragment to doxorubicin inhibits tumor growth

Doxorubicin (DOX) was conjugated to a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) against human midkine (MK), and the conjugate (scFv-DOX) was used to target the chemotherapeutic agent to a mouse solid tumor model in which the tumor cells expressed high levels of human MK. The His-tagged recombinant scFv was expressed in bacteria, purified by metal affinity chromatography, and then conjugated to DOX using oxidative dextran (Dex) as a linker. The molecular formula of this immunoconjugate was scFv(Dex)_1.3(DOX)₂₀. In vitro apoptosis assays showed that the scFv-DOX conjugate was more cytotoxic against MK-transfected human adenocarcinoma cells (BGC823-MK) than untransfected cells (55.3 ± 2.4 vs 22.4 ± 3.8%) for three independent experiments. Nude mice bearing BGC823-MK solid tumors received scFv-DOX or equivalent doses of scFv + DOX for 2 weeks and tumor growth was more effectively inhibited by the scFv-DOX conjugate than by scFv + DOX (51.83% inhibition vs 40.81%). Histological analysis of the tumor tissues revealed that the highest levels of DOX accumulated in tumors from mice treated with scFv-DOX and this resulted in more extensive tumor cell death than in animals treated with the equivalent dose of scFv + DOX. These results show that the scFv-DOX conjugate effectively inhibited tumor growth in vivo and suggest that antigen-specific scFv may be competent drug-carriers.

Midkine expression in human periapical granulomas

INTRODUCTION

The expression of midkine (MK), a heparin-binding growth factor, is increased in various human tumors, making it a promising tumor marker and target for tumor therapy. MK is also related to the regulation of the development and etiology of chronic or autoimmune diseases; however, the involvement of MK in apical periodontitis has never been examined. This study compared the localization of MK-expressing cells and MK messenger RNA expression in periapical granulomas with healthy gingival tissues.

METHODS

Periapical lesions were removed surgically from chronic apical periodontitis patients, and serial tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin-eosin. The lesions diagnosed as periapical granulomas pathologically were examined by immunohistochemistry using human MK monoclonal antibodies. MK messenger RNA expression was also detected using real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis. Healthy gingival tissues were analyzed in the same manner.

RESULTS

MK was expressed by inflammatory cells, such as macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils, as well as by endothelial cells in periapical granulomas but not in healthy gingival tissues. The MK-expressing inflammatory cells were seen adjacent to blood vessels, which contained MK-expressing endothelial cells, suggesting the interaction of MK among these cells during the process of inflammatory cell infiltration. Quantitative analysis of MK messenger RNA expression revealed that periapical granulomas expressed significantly more MK than healthy gingival tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that MK is involved in the pathogenesis of periapical granulomas.

Midkine: a promising molecule for drug development to treat diseases of the central nervous system

Midkine (MK) is a heparin-binding cytokine, and promotes growth, survival, migration and other activities of target cells. After describing the general properties of MK, this review focuses on MK and MK inhibitors as therapeutics for diseases in the central nervous system. MK is strongly expressed during embryogenesis especially at the midgestation period, but is expressed only at restricted sites in adults. MK expression is induced upon tissue injury such as ischemic brain damage. Since exogenously administered MK or the gene transfer of MK suppresses neuronal cell death in experimental systems, MK has the potential to treat cerebral infarction. MK might become important also in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. MK is involved in inflammatory diseases by enhancing migration of leukocytes, inducing chemokine production and suppressing regulatory T cells. Since an aptamer to MK suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalitis, MK inhibitors are promising for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. MK is overexpressed in most malignant tumors including glioblastoma, and is involved in tumor invasion. MK inhibitors may be of value in the treatment of glioblastoma. Furthermore, an oncolytic adenovirus, whose replication is under the control of the MK promoter, inhibits the growth of glioblastoma xenografts. MK inhibitors under development include antibodies, aptamers, glycosaminoglycans, peptides and low molecular weight compounds. siRNA and antisense oligoDNA have proved effective against malignant tumors and inflammatory diseases in experimental systems. Practical information concerning the development of MK and MK inhibitors as therapeutics is described in the final part of the review.

Molecular engineering and validation of an oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 1 transcriptionally targeted to midkine-positive tumors

BACKGROUND

Expression profile analyses of midkine (MDK), a multifunctional protein important in development but repressed postnataly, indicate that it is highly expressed in approximately 80% of adult carcinomas and many childhood cancers including malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNST). In the present study, we sought to leverage its selective expression to develop a novel oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) capable of targeting developmentally primitive cancers that express MDK.

METHODS

We sought to increase the oncolytic efficacy of the virus by fusing the human MDK promoter to the HSV type 1 neurovirulence gene, gamma(1)34.5, whose protein product increases viral replication.

RESULTS

Tissue-specific MDK promoter activity in human tumor cells and transgene biological activity was confirmed in human MPNST tumor cells. In vitro replication and cytotoxicity in human fibroblasts and MPNST cells by plaque and MTT assays showed that oHSV-MDK-34.5 increased replication and cytotoxicity compared to oHSV-MDK-Luc. By contrast, no significant difference in cytotoxicity was detected between these viruses in normal human fibroblasts. oHSV-MDK-34.5 impaired in vivo tumor growth and increased median survival of MPNST tumor-bearing nude mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The transcriptional targeting of HSV lytic infection to MDK-expressing tumor cells is feasible. oHSV-MDK-34.5 shows enhanced anti-tumor effects both in vitro and in vivo. Further studies are warranted and may lead to its use in clinical trials.

Enhancement of vinorelbine-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis by clomipramine and lithium chloride in human neuroblastoma cancer cell line SH-SY5Y

The aim of this work is to investigate whether clomipramine (CIM) and lithium chloride (LiCl) potentiate the cytotoxicity of vinorelbine (VNR) on SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells in vitro and whether midkine (MK) can be a resistance factor for these treatments. Four groups of experiments were performed for 96 h using both monolayer and spheroid cultures of SH-SY5Y cells: (1) control group, (2) singly applied VNR, CIM, and LiCl, (3) VNR with CIM, and (4) VNR with LiCl. Their effects on monolayer and spheroid cultures were determined by evaluating cell proliferation, bromodeoxyuridine labeling index (BrdU-LI), apoptosis, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and midkine levels, colony-forming efficiency, spheroid size, and ultrastructure. In comparison with the control group, single and combination drug treatments significantly reduced the proliferation index (PI) for 96 h. The most potent reduction of PI was observed with VNR in combination with CIM and LiCl for all time intervals. VNR with CIM and LiCl seemed to be ineffective in reducing BrdU-LI of both monolayer cell and spheroid cultures, spheroid size, and cAMP level. VNR with LiCl increased apoptosis at 24 h, however VNR with CIM increased apoptosis at 96 h. VNR was the most potent drug in inhibiting colony-forming efficiency. The combination of VNR with CIM was the most potent in reducing midkine levels among all groups. Interestingly, the combination of VNR with LiCl led to both nuclear membrane breakdown and disappearance of the cellular membranes inside the spheroids. Both CIM and LiCl seemed to potentiate VNR-induced cytotoxicity, and MK was not a resistance factor for VNR, LiCl, and CIM.

Midkine: a novel prognostic biomarker for cancer

Since diagnosis at an early stage still remains a key issue for modern oncology and is crucial for successful cancer therapy, development of sensitive, specific, and non-invasive tumor markers, especially, in serum, is urgently needed. Midkine (MK), a plasma secreted protein, was initially identified in embryonal carcinoma cells at early stages of retinoic acid-induced differentiation. Multiple studies have reported that MK plays important roles in tumor progression, and is highly expressed in various malignant tumors. Because increased serum MK concentrations also have been reported in patients with various tumors, serum MK may have the potential to become a very useful tumor marker. Here, we review and discuss the possibility and usefulness of MK as a novel tumor marker.

Midkine, a heparin-binding cytokine with multiple roles in development, repair and diseases

Midkine is a heparin-binding cytokine or a growth factor with a molecular weight of 13 kDa. Midkine binds to oversulfated structures in heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate. The midkine receptor is a molecular complex containing proteoglycans. Midkine promotes migration, survival and other activities of target cells. Midkine has about 50% sequence identity with pleiotrophin. Mice deficient in both factors exhibit severe abnormalities including female infertility. In adults, midkine is expressed in damaged tissues and involved in the reparative process. It is also involved in inflammatory reactions by promoting the migration of leukocytes, induction of chemokines and suppression of regulatory T cells. Midkine is expressed in a variety of malignant tumors and promotes their growth and invasion. Midkine appears to be helpful for the treatment of injuries in the heart, brain, spinal cord and retina. Midkine inhibitors are expected to be effective in the treatment of malignancies, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, renal diseases, restenosis, hypertension and adhesion after surgery.