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James T, Izon-Cooper L, Collins S, Cole H, Marczylo T. The wash-in effect and its significance for mass casualty decontamination. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2022; 25:113-134. [PMID: 35220912 PMCID: PMC8903816 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2022.2042443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Decontamination of skin by washing may increase dermal absorption, a phenomenon known as the wash-in effect. The wash-in effect is frequently discussed in studies investigating casualty decontamination where potentially life-saving interventions may enhance the dermal penetration of toxic chemicals, leading to an increase in incidence of morbidity and rates of mortality. However, the wash-in effect is seldom investigated within the context of mass casualty decontamination and real-life consequences are therefore poorly understood. This paper reviews the existing literature on the wash-in effect to highlight the proposed mechanisms for enhanced absorption and evaluate the wash-in effect within the context of mass casualty chemical decontamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas James
- Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, UK Health Security Agency, Chilton, UK
| | - Lydia Izon-Cooper
- Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, UK Health Security Agency, Chilton, UK
| | - Samuel Collins
- Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, UK Health Security Agency, Chilton, UK
- Global Operations, UK Health Security Agency, London, UK
| | - Haydn Cole
- Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, UK Health Security Agency, Chilton, UK
| | - Tim Marczylo
- Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, UK Health Security Agency, Chilton, UK
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Magnusson BM, Cross SE, Winckle G, Roberts MS. Percutaneous Absorption of Steroids: Determination of in vitro Permeability and Tissue Reservoir Characteristics in Human Skin Layers. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2006; 19:336-42. [PMID: 16931901 DOI: 10.1159/000095254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2005] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The skin localization of steroids following topical application is largely unknown. We determined the distribution of five steroids in human skin using excised epidermal, dermal, and full-thickness membranes in vitro. There was no significant difference in steroid maximum flux through epidermal and full-thickness membranes, other than significantly lower fluxes for the most polar steroid, aldosterone. Hydrocortisone had the highest dermal diffusivity and dermal penetration, and the accumulation of hydrocortisone and corticosterone was higher than that of the other steroids. Slower penetration and higher accumulation in the viable epidermis of progesterone in full-thickness skin were consistent with dermal penetration limitation effects associated with high lipophilicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Magnusson
- Therapeutics Research Unit, Southern Clinical Division, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
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Roberts MS, Cross SE, Anissimov YG. Factors affecting the formation of a skin reservoir for topically applied solutes. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2004; 17:3-16. [PMID: 14755122 DOI: 10.1159/000074057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2003] [Accepted: 08/22/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The reservoir function of the skin is an important determinant of the duration of action of a topical solute. The reservoir can exist in the stratum corneum, in the viable avascular tissue (viable epidermis and supracapillary dermis) and in the dermis. A steroid reservoir in the stratum corneum has been demonstrated by the reactivation of a vasoconstrictor effect by occlusion or application of a placebo cream to the skin some time after the original topical application of steroid. Other solutes have also been reported to show a reservoir effect in the skin after topical application. A simple compartmental model is used to understand why reactivation of vasoconstriction some time after a topical steroid application shows dependency on time, topical solute concentration and the product used to cause reactivation. The model is also used to show which solutes are likely to show a reservoir effect and could be potentially affected by desquamation, especially when the turnover of the skin is abnormally rapid. A similar form of the model can be used to understand the promotion of reservoir function in the viable tissue and in the dermis in terms of effective removal by blood perfusing the tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Roberts
- Department of Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Ipswich Road, Buranda, Queensland 4102, Australia.
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Yourick JJ, Koenig ML, Yourick DL, Bronaugh RL. Fate of chemicals in skin after dermal application: does the in vitro skin reservoir affect the estimate of systemic absorption? Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004; 195:309-20. [PMID: 15020193 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2003.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2003] [Accepted: 07/30/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Recent international guidelines for the conduct of in vitro skin absorption studies put forward different approaches for addressing the status of chemicals remaining in the stratum corneum and epidermis/dermis at the end of a study. The present study investigated the fate of three chemicals [dihydroxyacetone (DHA), 7-(2H-naphtho[1,2-d]triazol-2-yl)-3-phenylcoumarin (7NTPC), and disperse blue 1 (DB1)] in an in vitro absorption study. In these studies, human and fuzzy rat skin penetration and absorption were determined over 24 or 72 h in flow-through diffusion cells. Skin penetration of these chemicals resulted in relatively low receptor fluid levels but high skin levels. For DHA, penetration studies found approximately 22% of the applied dose remaining in the skin (in both the stratum corneum and viable tissue) as a reservoir after 24 h. Little of the DHA that penetrates into skin is actually available to become systemically absorbed. 7NTPC remaining in the skin after 24 h was approximately 14.7% of the applied dose absorbed. Confocal laser cytometry studies with 7NTPC showed that it is present across skin in mainly the epidermis and dermis with intense fluorescence around hair. For DB1, penetration studies found approximately 10% (ethanol vehicle) and 3% (formulation vehicle) of the applied dose localized in mainly the stratum corneum after 24 h. An extended absorption study (72 h) revealed that little additional DB1 was absorbed into the receptor fluid. Skin levels should not be considered as absorbed material for DHA or DB1, while 7NTPC requires further investigation. These studies illustrate the importance of determining the fate of chemicals remaining in skin, which could significantly affect the estimates of systemically available material to be used in exposure estimates. We recommend that a more conclusive means to determine the fate of skin levels is to perform an extended study as conducted for DB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Yourick
- Skin Absorption and Metabolism Section, Cosmetics Toxicology Branch, Office of Cosmetics and Colors, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA.
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Hashiguchi T, Kodama A, Ryu A, Otagiri M. Retention capacity of topical imidazole antifungal agents in the skin. Int J Pharm 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0378-5173(97)00352-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Abstract
The topical glucocorticoids (GCs) represent the treatment of choice for many types of inflammatory dermatoses. Despite the extensive use of this class of drugs as first line therapy the mechanism of their action is uncertain. It is clear that the multiplicity of actions of the topical GCs is an important facet of their scope in the treatment of dermal disorders. The aim of this update is to review past and current theories regarding how these agents might work. Current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of GC action has advanced significantly over the past decade with the realisation that multiple systems are responsible for transduction of GC effects at a molecular level. The two primary modes of action are via interaction directly with DNA or indirectly through modulation of specific transcription factors: the endpoint in both cases being modulation of specific protein synthesis. Both of these mechanisms will be discussed. In particular this review will concentrate on the possibility that a GC-inducible protein, termed lipocortin 1, may have a significant role to play in the anti-inflammatory actions of these drugs. Additionally it has become apparent that several inflammatory enzymes induced in inflammation are sites of inhibitory action of the GCs, and the possibility that this occurs in the skin will be discussed paying particular attention to the inducible phospholipase A2, nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ahluwalia
- Centre for Clinical Pharmacology, University College London, The Rayne Institute, UK.
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Chu I, Dick D, Bronaugh R, Tryphonas L. Skin reservoir formation and bioavailability of dermally administered chemicals in hairless guinea pigs. Food Chem Toxicol 1996; 34:267-76. [PMID: 8621108 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(95)00112-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
There is concern as to whether dermally applied chemicals that remain in the skin after exposure are bioavailable and should be included as part of the systemic dose; this study was conducted to investigate the temporal relationship between the skin depot and absorbed dose. Single doses of 14C-labelled phenanthrene, benzo[a]pyrene or di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were administered dermally to groups of four female, Hartley hairless guinea pigs which were housed individually in metabolism cages to collect urine and faeces for radioassay. The animals were sacrificed at 6 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr, 7 days or 14 days after dosing to harvest skin specimens for the determination of radioactivity by autoradiographic and liquid scintillation methods, and to determine the dose that remained in the body. It was found that for all three compounds the amount of chemical left in the skin decreased over time while the cumulative percent dose excreted in urine and faeces increased. The autoradiographic results were consistent with those obtained from the liquid scintillation method showing a gradual decrease in radioactivity grain accumulation over the time periods for the three compounds, with the highest grain density observed around hair follicles of the skin. The results of this study indicate that the chemicals left in the skin after surface washing eventually enter the systemic circulation and should be considered as part of the total dose absorbed, and that the hair follicle may play an important role in percutaneous penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Chu
- Health Canada, Environmental Health Directorate, Ottawa, ON
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Localization of lipophilic molecules penetrating rat skin in vivo by quantitative autoradiography. Int J Pharm 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0378-5173(91)90408-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Leiferman KM, Schroeter A, Kirschner MK, Spelsberg TC. Characterization of the glucocorticoid receptor in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 1983; 81:355-61. [PMID: 6619566 DOI: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12519950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Because of the profound importance glucocorticoids have in dermatologic therapy, we studied the glucocorticoid receptor in human skin. A cytosol fraction was prepared from frozen skin by homogenization and centrifugation. When reacted with [3H]dexamethasone, this cytosol contained saturable, low-capacity binding. The glucocorticoid binding was stabilized by a protease inhibitor, phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride, and by sodium molybdate and was destroyed by trypsin. Sedimentation analysis of the glucocorticoid binding protein showed an 8S to 4S transition in high salt, a property of many known steroid hormone receptors. The binding was steroid specific, supporting the conclusion that this binding protein was a glucocorticoid receptor. The receptor molecule had a frictional ratio of 1.60 and a Mr of about 226,000 under low-salt conditions (0.05 M KCl) and a frictional ratio of 1.86 and a Mr of about 100,000 under high-salt conditions (0.3 M KCl) consistent with a nonglobular, elongated molecule. Isoelectric focusing showed that the receptor had 2 molecular species with isoelectric points of approximately 5.8 and 7.5. Quantitation of receptor in human skin showed 4-7 times more receptors in the epidermis and papillary dermis than in the lower dermis and nearly equal numbers in epidermis and papillary dermis. The concentration of receptors varied in different anatomic areas, with male foreskin showing the highest concentration, followed by female face, breast, and abdominal skin. Interestingly, the concentration of glucocorticoid receptors also varied with age; the highest levels were present at the extremes of life and a significantly lower level at midlife.
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Triamcinolone Acetonide. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-5428(08)60278-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Artuc M, Reinhold C, Stüttgen G, Gazith J. A rapid method for measuring drug enrichment in epidermis. Arch Dermatol Res 1980; 268:129-40. [PMID: 7425669 DOI: 10.1007/bf00403797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
A rapid and simple method is described for measuring the enrichment of small molecules in epidermal tissue. To measure such an enrichment, a small tissue sample (2-10 mg) is allowed to equilibrate with a buffered solution of a labelled substance for periods of 12-36 h. The concentration of the radioactive molecule in the tissue is measured as a decrease of radioactivity in the solution. Concentration measurements in the tissue itself can be performed, but are not required to detect enrichment in the tissue or to assess its magnitude. The specific density of appendage free human epidermis has been determined and was found to be 1.20 g/cm3. Using this value, tissue weight can be translated into volume and concentraton changes in the solution can be recalculated to yield the concentration of the substance in the tissue itself. Close agreement was found between the calculated tissue concentration and the values actually measured, following digestion of the epidermis with NaOH and measuring the activity in the tissue digest. The enrichment of five substances in human epidermis was measured: alpha-estradiol, thiopyronincce, 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP), and theophylline. Of these substances, the first four are concentrated by human epidermis and the concentrations reached within the tissue are 10-500 times higher than the concentration of the same substance in the surrounding buffer. The enrichment data has been analysed in an attempt to distinguish between reversible affinity binding to specific tissue sites and partitioning of the substances between buffer and tissue components (lipids, membranes, etc.). In the case of thiopyronin and 8-MOP, reversible binding is indicated with dissociation constants of 10(-7) M and 10(-5) M, respectively, while partitioning distribution could account for the behavior of 5-MOP and alpha-estradiol. The method can be used either as a rapid screening method or as a quantitative analysis for the characterization of tissue enrichment with specific drugs.
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Abstract
Epidermal thinning of mouse tail skin was compared for commercial preparations of clobetasol propionate (Dermovate), clobetasone butyrate (Eumovate), fluocinonide (Metosyn), and hydrocortisone butyrate (Locoid). The thickness measurements were ranked with those for hydrocortisone (1%), betamethasone valerate (Betnovate), triamcinolone acetonide (Ledercort), fluocinolone acetonide (Synlar), and prednisolone stearoylglycolate (Sinistrone) obtained in a previous study (Spearman and Jarrett, 1975). All steroids caused epidermal thinning, except clobetasone butyrate. Some cream and ointment vehicles were also assayed. Epidermal thickening was caused by the cream and ointment vehicles used for Eumovate and also by the cream employed for Locoid formulation.
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