1
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Mason HD, Rose E, Gonzalez JE, O'Brien DA. Nocturnal surveys of lined seahorses reveal increased densities and seasonal recruitment patterns. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9573. [PMID: 36644702 PMCID: PMC9834011 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the nighttime ecology of organisms remains understudied, nocturnal surveys play an integral part in assessing fish assemblages and the selective forces shaping them. Eleuthera (Bahamas) contains an unusual population of lined seahorses (Hippocampus erectus) in an anchialine lake, possessing morphological characteristics distinct from those found in the ocean. Population surveys for seahorses and their potential predators were conducted at midnight and midday during wet and dry seasons, with belt transects perpendicular to the shoreline that increased in depth away from shore. Nocturnal surveys uncovered seahorse densities 259% higher than daytime transects on average. Sex ratios were consistently male-biased, and the frequency of animals from different reproductive categories varied significantly by time of day, with gravid males observed around the clock but females and nongravid males observed more often at night. Spatial and seasonal recruitment was detected for the first time in this species, with an increase in juveniles detected in the shallow ends of transects during dry season surveys. Juvenile recruitment is poorly understood across syngnathid fishes, so the detection of early recruits at night has broad implications for this fish family. Seahorses from all reproductive categories were perched significantly higher in the water column during the night regardless of their depth or season. Predator densities followed a similar pattern with higher densities observed at night, indicating that elevated nocturnal perch height may be a response to predator presence. However, the selective agents driving these nocturnal behaviors have yet to be identified. Considering H. erectus is listed on the IUCN Red List as "Vulnerable," the increase in nocturnal population size and the detection of juveniles has crucial implications for understanding their ecology, recruitment, and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emily Rose
- The University of TampaTampaFloridaUSA,Present address:
Department of BiologyValdosta State UniversityValdostaGeorgiaUSA
| | | | - Duncan A. O'Brien
- The Center for Ocean Research and EducationGregorytown, EleutheraThe Bahamas,Present address:
School of Biological SciencesUniversity of BristolBristolUK
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2
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Miller TEX, Compagnoni A. Two-sex demography, sexual niche differentiation, and the geographic range limits of Texas bluegrass (Poa arachnifera). Am Nat 2022; 200:17-31. [DOI: 10.1086/719668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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3
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McCullough K, Haukos DA, Albanese G. Regal Fritillary (Speyeria idalia) Sex Ratio in Tallgrass Prairie: Effects of Survey Timing and Management Regime. AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 2021. [DOI: 10.1674/0003-0031-185.1.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey McCullough
- Kansas Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Kansas State University, 211 Leasure Hall Manhattan, 66506
| | - David A. Haukos
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Kansas State University, 205 Leasure Hall, Manhattan, 66506
| | - Gene Albanese
- Massachusetts Audubon Society, Conservation Science Department, 208 South Great Road, Lincoln, 01773
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4
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Gownaris NJ, García Borboroglu P, Boersma PD. Sex ratio is variable and increasingly male biased at two colonies of Magellanic Penguins. Ecology 2020; 101:e02939. [DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha J. Gownaris
- Environmental Studies Department Gettysburg College Gettysburg Pennsylvania 17325 USA
| | - Pablo García Borboroglu
- Department of Biology and Center for Ecosystem Sentinels University of Washington Seattle Washington 98103 USA
- Global Penguin Society Puerto Madryn Argentina
| | - P. Dee Boersma
- Department of Biology and Center for Ecosystem Sentinels University of Washington Seattle Washington 98103 USA
- Global Penguin Society Puerto Madryn Argentina
- CESIMAR CCT Cenpat‐CONICET 9120Puerto Madryn Chubut Argentina
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5
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Panfylova J, Ewen JG, Armstrong DP. Making structured decisions for reintroduced populations in the face of uncertainty. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Panfylova
- Wildlife Ecology GroupMassey University Palmerston North New Zealand
| | - John G. Ewen
- Institute of ZoologyZoological Society of London London UK
| | - Doug P. Armstrong
- Wildlife Ecology GroupMassey University Palmerston North New Zealand
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6
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Heinsohn R, Olah G, Webb M, Peakall R, Stojanovic D. Sex ratio bias and shared paternity reduce individual fitness and population viability in a critically endangered parrot. J Anim Ecol 2018; 88:502-510. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Heinsohn
- Fenner School of Environment and Society Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - George Olah
- Fenner School of Environment and Society Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
- Research School of Biology The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Matthew Webb
- Fenner School of Environment and Society Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Rod Peakall
- Research School of Biology The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Dejan Stojanovic
- Fenner School of Environment and Society Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
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7
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Coomber F, Moulins A, Tepsich P, Rosso M. Sexing free-ranging adult Cuvier's beaked whales ( Ziphius cavirostris ) using natural marking thresholds and pigmentation patterns. J Mammal 2016; 97:879-890. [PMID: 29692471 PMCID: PMC5909803 DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyw033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex identification of adult cetaceans is an important ecological parameter that should be incorporated into studies such as population dynamics and animal behavior. In Cuvier’s beaked whale (
Ziphius cavirostris
), sex determination may be achieved through genetics, observation of genitals, the presence/absence of erupted teeth, and calf association. However, these features are difficult to ascertain due to the shy behavior of this species. Therefore, this study aimed to create a robust sex identification method using only external characteristics. Particularly, this work analyzed pigmentation patterns and levels of natural marks from adult individuals of known sex in order to identify gender differences, using frequency analysis and generalized linear models. Photographic captures of 73 free-ranging animals were utilized. The frequencies of the individual pigmentation patterns were found to be sex dependent. The 63% of the animals could be classified into either a “soft” or “sharp” pigmentation cluster. The “soft” cluster was only displayed by females, while the “sharp” cluster was present in both the sexes. However, the model selection process indicated that natural marking is the best determinative factor for sex classification. The density of the visible intraspecific natural marks was found to differ between the sexes (
P
value < 0.001) and was incorporated as a predictor variable into several candidate models. All candidate models had a high predictive power (mean area under the curve 0.973) and correctly predicted the sex, by means of a density threshold value, in 85–90% of the analyzed animals. The density threshold ranged from 4.1% to 6.4% according to the different body area analyzed. These density threshold values represent a robust post hoc sexing method to classify individuals to sex from opportunistic photos in the absence of other sexing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frazer Coomber
- CIMA Research Foundation , Via Magliotto 2, 17100 Savona , Italy (FC, AM, PT, MR).,DIBRIS, University of Genova , Via Balbi 5, 16126 Genova , Italy (FC, PT)
| | - Aurelie Moulins
- CIMA Research Foundation , Via Magliotto 2, 17100 Savona , Italy (FC, AM, PT, MR).,DIBRIS, University of Genova , Via Balbi 5, 16126 Genova , Italy (FC, PT)
| | - Paola Tepsich
- CIMA Research Foundation , Via Magliotto 2, 17100 Savona , Italy (FC, AM, PT, MR).,DIBRIS, University of Genova , Via Balbi 5, 16126 Genova , Italy (FC, PT)
| | - Massimiliano Rosso
- CIMA Research Foundation , Via Magliotto 2, 17100 Savona , Italy (FC, AM, PT, MR).,DIBRIS, University of Genova , Via Balbi 5, 16126 Genova , Italy (FC, PT)
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8
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Xu M, Fang M, Yang Y, Dick JTA, Song H, Luo D, Mu X, Gu D, Luo J, Hu Y. Spatial variation in adult sex ratio across multiple scales in the invasive golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:2308-17. [PMID: 27069581 PMCID: PMC4782258 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult sex ratio (ASR) has critical effects on behavior and life history and has implications for population demography, including the invasiveness of introduced species. ASR exhibits immense variation in nature, yet the scale dependence of this variation is rarely analyzed. In this study, using the generalized multilevel models, we investigated the variation in ASR across multiple nested spatial scales and analyzed the underlying causes for an invasive species, the golden apple snail Pomacea canaliculata. We partitioned the variance in ASR to describe the variations at different scales and then included the explanatory variables at the individual and group levels to analyze the potential causes driving the variation in ASR. We firstly determined there is a significant female‐biased ASR for this species when accounting for the spatial and temporal autocorrelations of sampling. We found that, counter to nearly equal distributed variation at plot, habitat and region levels, ASR showed little variation at the town level. Temperature and precipitation at the region level were significantly positively associated with ASR, whereas the individual weight, the density characteristic, and sampling time were not significant factors influencing ASR. Our study suggests that offspring sex ratio of this species may shape the general pattern of ASR in the population level while the environmental variables at the region level translate the unbiased offspring sex ratio to the female‐biased ASR. Future research should consider the implications of climate warming on the female‐biased ASR of this invasive species and thus on invasion pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Xu
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Miao Fang
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China; College of Fisheries and Life Science Shanghai Ocean University Shanghai 201306 China
| | - Yexin Yang
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Jaimie T A Dick
- Institute for Global Food Security School of Biological Sciences Queen's University Belfast MBC, 97 Lisburn Road Belfast BT9 7BL UK
| | - Hongmei Song
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Du Luo
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Xidong Mu
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Dangen Gu
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Jianren Luo
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
| | - Yinchang Hu
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation Ministry of Agriculture Guangzhou 510380 China
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9
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Brekke P, Ewen JG, Clucas G, Santure AW. Determinants of male floating behaviour and floater reproduction in a threatened population of the hihi (Notiomystis cincta). Evol Appl 2015; 8:796-806. [PMID: 26366197 PMCID: PMC4561569 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Floating males are usually thought of as nonbreeders. However, some floating individuals are able to reproduce through extra-pair copulations. Floater reproductive success can impact breeders' sex ratio, reproductive variance, multiple paternity and inbreeding, particularly in small populations. Changes in reproductive variance alter the rate of genetic drift and loss of genetic diversity. Therefore, genetic management of threatened species requires an understanding of floater reproduction and determinants of floating behaviour to effectively conserve species. Here, we used a pedigreed, free-living population of the endangered New Zealand hihi (Notiomystis cincta) to assess variance in male reproductive success and test the genetic (inbreeding and heritability) and conditional (age and size) factors that influence floater behaviour and reproduction. Floater reproduction is common in this species. However, floater individuals have lower reproductive success and variance in reproductive success than territorial males (total and extra-pair fledglings), so their relative impact on the population's reproductive performance is low. Whether an individual becomes a floater, and if so then how successful they are, is determined mainly by individual age (young and old) and to lesser extents male size (small) and inbreeding level (inbred). Floating males have a small, but important role in population reproduction and persistence of threatened populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Brekke
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of LondonRegents Park, London, UK
| | - John G Ewen
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of LondonRegents Park, London, UK
| | - Gemma Clucas
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of SouthamptonWaterfront Campus European Way, Southampton, UK
| | - Anna W Santure
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western BankSheffield, UK
- School of Biological Sciences, University of AucklandAuckland, New Zealand
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10
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Walker LK, Ewen JG, Brekke P, Kilner RM. Sexually selected dichromatism in the hihi Notiomystis cincta: multiple colours for multiple receivers. J Evol Biol 2014; 27:1522-35. [PMID: 24836349 PMCID: PMC4515105 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Why do some bird species show dramatic sexual dichromatism in their plumage? Sexual selection is the most common answer to this question. However, other competing explanations mean it is unwise to assume that all sexual dichromatism has evolved by this mechanism. Even if sexual selection is involved, further work is necessary to determine whether dichromatism results from competition amongst rival males, or by female choice for attractive traits, or both. Here, we test whether sexually dichromatic hihi (Notiomystis cincta) plumage is currently under sexual selection, with detailed behavioural and genetic analyses of a free-living island population. Bateman gradients measured for males and females reveal the potential for sexual selection, whilst selection gradients, relating reproductive success to specific colourful traits, show that there is stabilizing selection on white ear tuft length in males. By correlating colourful male plumage with different components of reproductive success, we show that properties of yellow plumage are most likely a product of male–male competition, whilst properties of the black and white plumage are an outcome of both male–male competition and female choice. Male plumage therefore potentially signals to multiple receivers (rival males and potential mates), and this may explain the multicoloured appearance of one of the most strikingly dichromatic species in New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Walker
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Zoological Society of London, Institute of Zoology, London, UK
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11
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Grayson KL, Mitchell NJ, Monks JM, Keall SN, Wilson JN, Nelson NJ. Sex ratio bias and extinction risk in an isolated population of Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). PLoS One 2014; 9:e94214. [PMID: 24714691 PMCID: PMC3979778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms underlying population declines is critical for preventing the extinction of endangered populations. Positive feedbacks can hasten the process of collapse and create an ‘extinction vortex,’ particularly in small, isolated populations. We provide a case study of a male-biased sex ratio creating the conditions for extinction in a natural population of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) on North Brother Island in the Cook Strait of New Zealand. We combine data from long term mark-recapture surveys, updated model estimates of hatchling sex ratio, and population viability modeling to measure the impacts of sex ratio skew. Results from the mark-recapture surveys show an increasing decline in the percentage of females in the adult tuatara population. Our monitoring reveals compounding impacts on female fitness through reductions in female body condition, fecundity, and survival as the male-bias in the population has increased. Additionally, we find that current nest temperatures are likely to result in more male than female hatchlings, owing to the pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination in tuatara where males hatch at warmer temperatures. Anthropogenic climate change worsens the situation for this isolated population, as projected temperature increases for New Zealand are expected to further skew the hatchling sex ratio towards males. Population viability models predict that without management intervention or an evolutionary response, the population will ultimately become entirely comprised of males and functionally extinct. Our study demonstrates that sex ratio bias can be an underappreciated threat to population viability, particularly in populations of long-lived organisms that appear numerically stable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine L. Grayson
- Allan Wilson Centre for Molecular Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
- * E-mail:
| | - Nicola J. Mitchell
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W.A., Australia
| | - Joanne M. Monks
- Science and Capability Group, Department of Conservation, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Susan N. Keall
- Allan Wilson Centre for Molecular Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Joanna N. Wilson
- Allan Wilson Centre for Molecular Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Nicola J. Nelson
- Allan Wilson Centre for Molecular Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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12
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Chauvenet ALM, Ewen JG, Armstrong D, Pettorelli N. EDITOR'S CHOICE: Saving the hihi under climate change: a case for assisted colonization. J Appl Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aliénor L. M. Chauvenet
- Institute of Zoology; Zoological Society of London; Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
- Division of Biology; Imperial College London; Silwood Park Campus Ascot Berkshire SL5 7PY UK
| | - John G. Ewen
- Institute of Zoology; Zoological Society of London; Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
| | - Doug Armstrong
- Wildlife Ecology Group; Institute of Natural Resources; Massey University; Private Bag 11222 Palmerston North New Zealand
| | - Nathalie Pettorelli
- Institute of Zoology; Zoological Society of London; Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
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13
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Holman L, Kokko H. The consequences of polyandry for population viability, extinction risk and conservation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20120053. [PMID: 23339244 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyandry, by elevating sexual conflict and selecting for reduced male care relative to monandry, may exacerbate the cost of sex and thereby seriously impact population fitness. On the other hand, polyandry has a number of possible population-level benefits over monandry, such as increased sexual selection leading to faster adaptation and a reduced mutation load. Here, we review existing information on how female fitness evolves under polyandry and how this influences population dynamics. In balance, it is far from clear whether polyandry has a net positive or negative effect on female fitness, but we also stress that its effects on individuals may not have visible demographic consequences. In populations that produce many more offspring than can possibly survive and breed, offspring gained or lost as a result of polyandry may not affect population size. Such ecological 'masking' of changes in population fitness could hide a response that only manifests under adverse environmental conditions (e.g. anthropogenic change). Surprisingly few studies have attempted to link mating system variation to population dynamics, and in general we urge researchers to consider the ecological consequences of evolutionary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Holman
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Division of Ecology, Evolution and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia.
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14
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Chauvenet ALM, Ewen JG, Armstrong DP, Coulson T, Blackburn TM, Adams L, Walker LK, Pettorelli N. Does supplemental feeding affect the viability of translocated populations? The example of the hihi. Anim Conserv 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00522.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - J. G. Ewen
- Institute of Zoology; Zoological Society of London; London; UK
| | - D. P. Armstrong
- Wildlife Ecology Group; Institute of Natural Resources; Massey University; Palmerston North; New Zealand
| | - T. Coulson
- Division of Biology; Imperial College London; Silwood Park Campus; Ascot; Berkshire; UK
| | | | - L. Adams
- Department of Conservation Wellington Conservancy Office; Wellington; New Zealand
| | | | - N. Pettorelli
- Institute of Zoology; Zoological Society of London; London; UK
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15
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