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La Grange M, Matema C, Nyamukure B, Hoare R. The Virtual Fence Dynamic: a Breakthrough for Low-Cost and Sustainable Mitigation of Human-Elephant Conflict in Subsistence Agriculture? FRONTIERS IN CONSERVATION SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fcosc.2022.863180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Attempts to deter elephants from entering crop fields and human settlements in Africa have used various barriers (e.g. electric fences, chilli fences, beehive fences or plant barriers), situated on or very near the boundaries of fields or villages, with rather variable success. We explored a very simple new barrier concept based upon re-arranging the layout of foreign stimuli already known to arouse suspicion and fear among elephants. Deterrence involved deploying unnaturally scented objects on and across their pathways of habitual movement leading to crop field clusters. Elephants are suspicious of unpleasant olfactory stimuli, like string or cloth saturated with pungent-smelling chilli oil, old engine oil, or creosote and dislike ‘chilli smoke’. Foreign visual items like plastic bottles, reflective metal strips and cow bells possibly reinforced suspicion of these unpleasant scents and influenced the deterrent effect. These flimsy items deployed over very short distances merely acted as a bluff to ‘problem elephants’ that people were actively trying to impede their progress, and the vast majority chose to turn back or deviate substantially. Thus we coined the term a ‘soft virtual boundary’. We demonstrate that placing virtual boundaries away from village and agricultural lands, forces elephants to encounter them upon leaving their daytime refuges, while still in natural habitat. The suspicion and fear generated here considerably reduces elephants’ determination to proceed onwards to risk crop raiding. When multiple, small virtual boundaries are strategically moved around at intervals, a ‘virtual fence dynamic’ delivers an enduring deterrent effect. In ten study areas in two countries over seven years this technique led to considerable and consistent reductions in crop damage levels of up to 95% in places. Because these methods (i) completely rely on local knowledge, (ii) were exceptionally low cost and (iii) demonstrated rapid results, the ‘buy-in’ from affected communities of small-scale subsistence farmers was immediate and very enthusiastic. So this strategy has the potential to remove the most intractable stumbling block to the sustainability of human-elephant conflict mitigation efforts in smallholder agriculture – reliance upon conservation donor funding for very costly and problematic mitigation measures like fencing, compensation schemes and elephant translocations.
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Stakeholder attitudes toward the incentives used to mitigate human-elephant conflict in southern Africa: A news media content analysis. J Nat Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnc.2021.125982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Kioko J, Horton A, Libre M, Vickers J, Dressel E, Kasey H, Ndegeya PM, Gadiye D, Kissui B, Kiffner C. Distribution and abundance of African elephants in Ngorongoro Crater, northern Tanzania. AFRICAN ZOOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15627020.2020.1813625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Kioko
- School for Field Studies, Karatu, Tanzania
| | - Alanna Horton
- Department of Biology, Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina, United States
| | - Margo Libre
- Department of Biology, Muhlenberg College, Allentown, United States
| | | | - Emma Dressel
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia, United States
| | - Heather Kasey
- Prescott College, Abington, Pennsylvania, United States
| | | | - Donatus Gadiye
- Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, Karatu, Tanzania
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Fürtbauer I, Christensen C, Bracken A, O'Riain MJ, Heistermann M, King AJ. Energetics at the urban edge: Environmental and individual predictors of urinary C-peptide levels in wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). Horm Behav 2020; 126:104846. [PMID: 32860833 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
As human-modified landscapes encroach into natural habitats, wildlife face a reduction in natural food sources but also gain access to calorie-rich, human-derived foods. However, research into the energetics of wildlife living within and adjacent to urban and rural landscapes is lacking. C-peptide - a proxy for insulin production and a diagnostic tool for assessing pancreatic function in humans and domestic animals - can be quantified non-invasively from urine (uCP) and may provide a way to investigate the energetic correlates of living in human-altered landscapes. UCP is increasingly used in studies of primate energetics, and here we examine predictors of variation in uCP levels in n = 17 wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) living at the urban edge on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. We find that uCP was positively associated with food provisioning and negatively with night fasting. UCP levels were comparable between winter and summer but significantly lower during spring, possibly driven by consumption of energy-rich seeds during summer and more human-derived foods during winter. UCP was elevated in pregnant females and similar for lactating and cycling females. We find no effect of dominance rank on uCP. Samples collected with synthetic Salivettes had significantly lower uCP levels than directly pipetted samples. Overall, our results indicate that uCP is a reliable, non-invasive measure of energy balance and intake in baboons, and suggest potential energetic benefits of living at the urban edge. More broadly, studies of uCP may offer unique insight into the environmental control of hormone-behaviour relationships in species crossing natural and urban environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Fürtbauer
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK; Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa.
| | - Charlotte Christensen
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK; Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
| | - Anna Bracken
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK; Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
| | - M Justin O'Riain
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
| | | | - Andrew J King
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK; Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
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Troup G, Doran B, Au J, King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Heinsohn R. Movement tortuosity and speed reveal the trade-offs of crop raiding for African elephants. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Singh SK, Jabin G, Basumatary T, Bhattarai GP, Chandra K, Thakur M. Resolving the trans-boundary dispute of elephant poaching between India and Nepal. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 1:146-150. [PMID: 32411967 PMCID: PMC7219153 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL), which is shared by three countries – Bhutan, India, and Nepal, the wild elephants migrate from east of Jhapa (Nepal), through West Bengal (India) and Sibsoo (Bhutan) to further east in Assam (India). The route Jhapa-WB-Sibsoo-Assam is a known route for elephant movements where maximum causalities have been reported in the past. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the individual identity of a poached elephant in Jhapa, Nepal and ivory which was suspected to be from the same individual elephant confiscated in Siliguri, India. We undertook STR profiling of the confiscated specimens with nine polymorphic STRs. The forensic parameters has established the fact that the two analyzed samples of elephant were not identical and belong to two different individuals. The present study highlights the necessity of transboundary research for elephant conservation and monitoring their movements in Kangchenjunga Landscape and emphasizes the use of forensic genetics in curbing illegal wildlife trade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujeet K Singh
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Gul Jabin
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Thomas Basumatary
- Directorates of Revenue Intelligence Siliguri Regional Unit, Siliguri, 734001, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
| | - Gopal Prakash Bhattarai
- Deptt. of National Parks & Wildlife Conservation Ministry of Forest and Environment Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Kailash Chandra
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Mukesh Thakur
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
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Hardwick JL, Priston NEC, Martin TE, Tosh DG, Mustari AH, Abernethy KE. Community Perceptions of the Crop-Feeding Buton Macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens): an Ethnoprimatological Study on Buton Island, Sulawesi. INT J PRIMATOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-017-9999-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Using camera traps to study the age–sex structure and behaviour of crop-using elephants Loxodonta africana in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania. ORYX 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/s0030605317000345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractCrop losses to foraging elephants are one of the primary obstacles to the coexistence of elephants and people. Understanding whether some individuals in a population are more likely to forage on crops, and the temporal patterns of elephant visits to farms, is key to mitigating the negative impacts of elephants on farmers’ livelihoods. We used camera traps to study the crop foraging behaviour of African elephants Loxodonta africana in farmland adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains National Park in southern Tanzania during October 2010–August 2014. Camera traps placed on elephant trails into farmland detected elephants on 336 occasions during the study period. We identified individual elephants for 126 camera-trap detections. All were independent males, and we identified 48 unique bulls aged 10–29 years. Two-thirds of the bulls identified were detected only once by camera traps during the study period. Our findings are consistent with previous studies that found that adult males are more likely to adopt high-risk feeding behaviours such as crop foraging, although young males dispersing from maternal family units also consume crops in Udzungwa. We found a large number of occasional crop-users (32 of the 48 bulls identified) and a smaller number of repeat crop-users (16 of 48), suggesting that lethal control of crop-using elephants is unlikely to be an effective long-term strategy for reducing crop losses to elephants.
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Swan GJF, Redpath SM, Bearhop S, McDonald RA. Ecology of Problem Individuals and the Efficacy of Selective Wildlife Management. Trends Ecol Evol 2017; 32:518-530. [PMID: 28529028 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2017.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
As a result of ecological and social drivers, the management of problems caused by wildlife is becoming more selective, often targeting specific animals. Narrowing the sights of management relies upon the ecology of certain 'problem individuals' and their disproportionate contribution to impacts upon human interests. We assess the ecological evidence for problem individuals and confirm that some individuals or classes can be both disproportionately responsible and more likely to reoffend. The benefits of management can sometimes be short-lived, and selective management can affect tolerance of wildlife for better or worse, but, when effectively targeted, selective management can bring benefits by mitigating impact and conflict, often in a more socially acceptable way.
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Affiliation(s)
- George J F Swan
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9EZ, UK; Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9EZ, UK
| | - Steve M Redpath
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK; Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Grimso Wildlife Research Station, 730 91 Riddarhyttan, Sweden
| | - Stuart Bearhop
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9EZ, UK
| | - Robbie A McDonald
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9EZ, UK.
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Breuer T, Maisels F, Fishlock V. The consequences of poaching and anthropogenic change for forest elephants. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2016; 30:1019-1026. [PMID: 26801000 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Poaching has devastated forest elephant populations (Loxodonta cyclotis), and their habitat is dramatically changing. The long-term effects of poaching and other anthropogenic threats have been well studied in savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana), but the impacts of these changes for Central Africa's forest elephants have not been discussed. We examined potential repercussions of these threats and the related consequences for forest elephants in Central Africa by summarizing the lessons learned from savannah elephants and small forest elephant populations in West Africa. Forest elephant social organization is less known than the social organization of savannah elephants, but the close evolutionary history of these species suggests that they will respond to anthropogenic threats in broadly similar ways. The loss of older, experienced individuals in an elephant population disrupts ecological, social, and population parameters. Severe reduction of elephant abundance within Central Africa's forests can alter plant communities and ecosystem functions. Poaching, habitat alterations, and human population increase are probably compressing forest elephants into protected areas and increasing human-elephant conflict, which negatively affects their conservation. We encourage conservationists to look beyond documenting forest elephant population decline and address the causes of these declines when developing conversation strategies. We suggest assessing the effectiveness of the existing protected-area networks for landscape connectivity in light of current industrial and infrastructure development. Longitudinal assessments of the effects of landscape changes on forest elephant sociality and behavior are also needed. Finally, lessons learned from West African elephant population loss and habitat fragmentation should be used to inform strategies for land-use planning and managing human-elephant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Breuer
- Global Conservation Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, 10460, U.S.A..
| | - Fiona Maisels
- Global Conservation Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, 10460, U.S.A
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Vicki Fishlock
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Langata 00509, Nairobi, P.O. Box 15135, Kenya
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Ogutu JO, Piepho HP, Said MY, Ojwang GO, Njino LW, Kifugo SC, Wargute PW. Extreme Wildlife Declines and Concurrent Increase in Livestock Numbers in Kenya: What Are the Causes? PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163249. [PMID: 27676077 PMCID: PMC5039022 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence of escalating wildlife losses worldwide. Extreme wildlife losses have recently been documented for large parts of Africa, including western, Central and Eastern Africa. Here, we report extreme declines in wildlife and contemporaneous increase in livestock numbers in Kenya rangelands between 1977 and 2016. Our analysis uses systematic aerial monitoring survey data collected in rangelands that collectively cover 88% of Kenya's land surface. Our results show that wildlife numbers declined on average by 68% between 1977 and 2016. The magnitude of decline varied among species but was most extreme (72-88%) and now severely threatens the population viability and persistence of warthog, lesser kudu, Thomson's gazelle, eland, oryx, topi, hartebeest, impala, Grevy's zebra and waterbuck in Kenya's rangelands. The declines were widespread and occurred in most of the 21 rangeland counties. Likewise to wildlife, cattle numbers decreased (25.2%) but numbers of sheep and goats (76.3%), camels (13.1%) and donkeys (6.7%) evidently increased in the same period. As a result, livestock biomass was 8.1 times greater than that of wildlife in 2011-2013 compared to 3.5 times in 1977-1980. Most of Kenya's wildlife (ca. 30%) occurred in Narok County alone. The proportion of the total "national" wildlife population found in each county increased between 1977 and 2016 substantially only in Taita Taveta and Laikipia but marginally in Garissa and Wajir counties, largely reflecting greater wildlife losses elsewhere. The declines raise very grave concerns about the future of wildlife, the effectiveness of wildlife conservation policies, strategies and practices in Kenya. Causes of the wildlife declines include exponential human population growth, increasing livestock numbers, declining rainfall and a striking rise in temperatures but the fundamental cause seems to be policy, institutional and market failures. Accordingly, we thoroughly evaluate wildlife conservation policy in Kenya. We suggest policy, institutional and management interventions likely to succeed in reducing the declines and restoring rangeland health, most notably through strengthening and investing in community and private wildlife conservancies in the rangelands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph O. Ogutu
- University of Hohenheim, Institute for Crop Science-340, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
- International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Hans-Peter Piepho
- University of Hohenheim, Institute for Crop Science-340, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Mohamed Y. Said
- International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
- Kenya Market Trust, 14 Riverside, Cavendish Block 3rd Floor, Suite B, Riverside Drive P.O. Box 44817–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
- Center for Sustainable Drylands Ecosystems and Societies, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gordon O. Ojwang
- Directorate of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, P.O. Box 47146–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lucy W. Njino
- Directorate of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, P.O. Box 47146–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Shem C. Kifugo
- International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
- Northern Rangelands Trust, Private Bag, Isiolo, 60300, Kenya
| | - Patrick W. Wargute
- Directorate of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, P.O. Box 47146–00100, Nairobi, Kenya
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Wijayagunawardane MPB, Short RV, Samarakone TS, Nishany KBM, Harrington H, Perera BVP, Rassool R, Bittner EP. The use of audio playback to deter crop-raiding Asian elephants. WILDLIFE SOC B 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Missaka P. B. Wijayagunawardane
- Department of Animal Science; University of Peradeniya; Peradeniya 20400 Sri Lanka
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Roger V. Short
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | | | | | - Helena Harrington
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - B. V. P. Perera
- Elephant Transit Home; Department of Wildlife Conservation; Udewalawe Sri Lanka
| | - Roger Rassool
- School of Physics; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Evan P. Bittner
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
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Elephants can determine ethnicity, gender, and age from acoustic cues in human voices. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:5433-8. [PMID: 24616492 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1321543111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals can accrue direct fitness benefits by accurately classifying predatory threat according to the species of predator and the magnitude of risk associated with an encounter. Human predators present a particularly interesting cognitive challenge, as it is typically the case that different human subgroups pose radically different levels of danger to animals living around them. Although a number of prey species have proved able to discriminate between certain human categories on the basis of visual and olfactory cues, vocalizations potentially provide a much richer source of information. We now use controlled playback experiments to investigate whether family groups of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Amboseli National Park, Kenya can use acoustic characteristics of speech to make functionally relevant distinctions between human subcategories differing not only in ethnicity but also in sex and age. Our results demonstrate that elephants can reliably discriminate between two different ethnic groups that differ in the level of threat they represent, significantly increasing their probability of defensive bunching and investigative smelling following playbacks of Maasai voices. Moreover, these responses were specific to the sex and age of Maasai presented, with the voices of Maasai women and boys, subcategories that would generally pose little threat, significantly less likely to produce these behavioral responses. Considering the long history and often pervasive predatory threat associated with humans across the globe, it is likely that abilities to precisely identify dangerous subcategories of humans on the basis of subtle voice characteristics could have been selected for in other cognitively advanced animal species.
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Mijele D, Obanda V, Omondi P, Soriguer RC, Gakuya F, Otiende M, Hongo P, Alasaad S. Spatio-temporal distribution of injured elephants in Masai Mara and the putative negative and positive roles of the local community. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71179. [PMID: 23936262 PMCID: PMC3728216 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Very few studies have ever focused on the elephants that are wounded or killed as local communities attempt to scare these animals away from their settlements and farms, or on the cases in which local people take revenge after elephants have killed or injured humans. On the other hand, local communities live in close proximity to elephants and hence can play a positive role in elephant conservation by informing the authorities of the presence of injured elephants. Methodology/Principal Findings Between 2007 and 2011, 129 elephants were monitored in Masai Mara (Kenya), of which 54 had various types of active (intentionally caused) or passive (non-intentionally caused) injuries. Also studied were 75 random control samples of apparently unaffected animals. The observed active injuries were as expected biased by age, with adults suffering more harm; on the other hand, no such bias was observed in the case of passive injuries. Bias was also observed in elephant sex since more males than females were passively and actively injured. Cases of passive and active injuries in elephants were negatively related to the proximity to roads and farms; the distribution of injured elephants was not affected by the presence of either human settlements or water sources. Overall more elephants were actively injured during the dry season than the wet season as expected. Local communities play a positive role by informing KWS authorities of the presence of injured elephants and reported 43% of all cases of injured elephants. Conclusions Our results suggest that the negative effect of local communities on elephants could be predicted by elephant proximity to farms and roads. In addition, local communities may be able to play a more positive role in elephant conservation given that they are key informants in the early detection of injured elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domnic Mijele
- Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
- * E-mail: (DM); (SA)
| | | | | | - Ramón C. Soriguer
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Samer Alasaad
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies (IEU), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (DM); (SA)
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Guerbois C, Chapanda E, Fritz H. Combining multi-scale socio-ecological approaches to understand the susceptibility of subsistence farmers to elephant crop raiding on the edge of a protected area. J Appl Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02192.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Eunice Chapanda
- CNRS HERD Programme - Hwange LTER; Main Camp Research; Hwange National Park; Zimbabwe
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Hockings KJ, McLennan MR. From forest to farm: systematic review of cultivar feeding by chimpanzees--management implications for wildlife in anthropogenic landscapes. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33391. [PMID: 22509256 PMCID: PMC3324475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2011] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Crop-raiding is a major source of conflict between people and wildlife globally, impacting local livelihoods and impeding conservation. Conflict mitigation strategies that target problematic wildlife behaviours such as crop-raiding are notoriously difficult to develop for large-bodied, cognitively complex species. Many crop-raiders are generalist feeders. In more ecologically specialised species crop-type selection is not random and evidence-based management requires a good understanding of species' ecology and crop feeding habits. Comprehensive species-wide studies of crop consumption by endangered wildlife are lacking but are important for managing human-wildlife conflict. We conducted a comprehensive literature search of crop feeding records by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), a ripe-fruit specialist. We assessed quantitatively patterns of crop selection in relation to species-specific feeding behaviour, agricultural exposure, and crop availability. Crop consumption by chimpanzees is widespread in tropical Africa. Chimpanzees were recorded to eat a considerable range of cultivars (51 plant parts from 36 species). Crop part selection reflected a species-typical preference for fruit. Crops widely distributed in chimpanzee range countries were eaten at more sites than sparsely distributed crops. We identified 'high' and 'low' conflict crops according to their attractiveness to chimpanzees, taking account of their importance as cash crops and/or staple foods to people. Most (86%) high conflict crops were fruits, compared to 13% of low conflict crops. Some widely farmed cash or staple crops were seldom or never eaten by chimpanzees. Information about which crops are most frequently consumed and which are ignored has enormous potential for aiding on-the-ground stakeholders (i.e. farmers, wildlife managers, and conservation and agricultural extension practitioners) develop sustainable wildlife management schemes for ecologically specialised and protected species in anthropogenic habitats. However, the economic and subsistence needs of local people, and the crop-raiding behaviour of sympatric wildlife, must be considered when assessing suitability of particular crops for conflict prevention and mitigation.
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Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. The influence of life history milestones and association networks on crop-raiding behavior in male African elephants. PLoS One 2012; 7:e31382. [PMID: 22347468 PMCID: PMC3275604 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Factors that influence learning and the spread of behavior in wild animal populations are important for understanding species responses to changing environments and for species conservation. In populations of wildlife species that come into conflict with humans by raiding cultivated crops, simple models of exposure of individual animals to crops do not entirely explain the prevalence of crop raiding behavior. We investigated the influence of life history milestones using age and association patterns on the probability of being a crop raider among wild free ranging male African elephants; we focused on males because female elephants are not known to raid crops in our study population. We examined several features of an elephant association network; network density, community structure and association based on age similarity since they are known to influence the spread of behaviors in a population. We found that older males were more likely to be raiders than younger males, that males were more likely to be raiders when their closest associates were also raiders, and that males were more likely to be raiders when their second closest associates were raiders older than them. The male association network had sparse associations, a tendency for individuals similar in age and raiding status to associate, and a strong community structure. However, raiders were randomly distributed between communities. These features of the elephant association network may limit the spread of raiding behavior and likely determine the prevalence of raiding behavior in elephant populations. Our results suggest that social learning has a major influence on the acquisition of raiding behavior in younger males whereas life history factors are important drivers of raiding behavior in older males. Further, both life-history and network patterns may influence the acquisition and spread of complex behaviors in animal populations and provide insight on managing human-wildlife conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick I Chiyo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America.
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Campbell-Smith G, Sembiring R, Linkie M. Evaluating the effectiveness of human-orangutan conflict mitigation strategies in Sumatra. J Appl Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Archie EA, Chiyo PI. Elephant behaviour and conservation: social relationships, the effects of poaching, and genetic tools for management. Mol Ecol 2011; 21:765-78. [PMID: 21880086 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Genetic tools are increasingly valuable for understanding the behaviour, evolution, and conservation of social species. In African elephants, for instance, genetic data provide basic information on the population genetic causes and consequences of social behaviour, and how human activities alter elephants' social and genetic structures. As such, African elephants provide a useful case study to understand the relationships between social behaviour and population genetic structure in a conservation framework. Here, we review three areas where genetic methods have made important contributions to elephant behavioural ecology and conservation: (1) understanding kin-based relationships in females and the effects of poaching on the adaptive value of elephant relationships, (2) understanding patterns of paternity in elephants and how poaching can alter these patterns, and (3) conservation genetic tools to census elusive populations, track ivory, and understand the behavioural ecology of crop-raiding. By comparing studies from populations that have experienced a range of poaching intensities, we find that human activities have a large effect on elephant behaviour and genetic structure. Poaching disrupts kin-based association patterns, decreases the quality of elephant social relationships, and increases male reproductive skew, with important consequences for population health and the maintenance of genetic diversity. In addition, we find that genetic tools to census populations or gather forensic information are almost always more accurate than non-genetic alternatives. These results contribute to a growing understanding of poaching on animal behaviour, and how genetic tools can be used to understand and conserve social species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Archie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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Chiyo PI, Lee PC, Moss CJ, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Alberts SC. No risk, no gain: effects of crop raiding and genetic diversity on body size in male elephants. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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