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Qian C, Castañeda-Gulla K, Sattlegger E, Mutukumira AN. Enterotoxigenicity and genetic relatedness of Staphylococcus aureus in a commercial poultry plant and poultry farm. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 363:109454. [PMID: 34756454 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Raw (fresh) and frozen poultry products are frequently associated with Staphylococcus aureus contamination. New Zealand is among the developed countries with high incidences of staphylococcal food poisoning. The study investigated the S. aureus isolates obtained from various stages of poultry production, to determine the primary source of contamination. Viable cell counts of S. aureus were enumerated using Petrifilm™ Staph Express Count Plates, and the isolates were confirmed by Gram-stain and coagulase-positive test. Sixty S. aureus isolates were further confirmed by PCR. The PCR analysis used primers that specifically amplifies a fragment of the femA gene, unique to S. aureus. The confirmed S. aureus strains were further examined for enterotoxigenicity by PCR. Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) was then used to identify sequence types (STs) of the sixty isolates of S. aureus. The relatedness of the sequence types was investigated by eBURST. In this study, it was observed that all samples from the processing plant and live chickens at the farm were contaminated by S. aureus. Fifty-nine (59) of the 60 isolates were enterotoxigenic carrying enterotoxin genes: seg, sei, seh, sek, sel, sem, sen, or seo. The sixty isolates were categorised into six different sequence types: ST5, ST2594, ST101, ST83, ST398, ST1; where ST5, ST83 and ST2594 belonged to the Clonal Complex (CC) 5 with ST5 being the clonal ancestor. The sources of S. aureus contamination in the final poultry products were linked to fresh mechanically separated meat, fresh skin, fresh skin-on-breast fillet, rubber fingers on mechanical pluckers, and live chickens at the farm. The skin of live chickens at the farm was most likely the origin of S. aureus contamination on equipment and final products. Not all identified S. aureus strains at the farm were observed in the final products. Therefore, further investigation on other potential contamination sources such as gloves and knives used at the processing plant, and feeders and drinkers at the farm level is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Qian
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Evelyn Sattlegger
- School of Natural and Computational Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anthony N Mutukumira
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. A. Devriese
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Gent Casinoplein 24, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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Arnold J, Yates I. Interventions for control of Salmonella: Clearance of microbial growth from rubber picker fingers. Poult Sci 2009; 88:1292-8. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2008-00391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Russell S. Effect of Sanitizers Applied by Electrostatic Spraying on Pathogenic and Indicator Bacteria Attached to the Surface of Eggs. J APPL POULTRY RES 2003. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/12.2.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Russell S. Effect of a Novel Sanitizer on Pathogenic, Spoilage, and Indicator Populations of Bacteria from Chicken Carcasses. J APPL POULTRY RES 2000. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/9.3.393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Arnold JW, Silvers S. Comparison of poultry processing equipment surfaces for susceptibility to bacterial attachment and biofilm formation. Poult Sci 2000; 79:1215-21. [PMID: 10947195 DOI: 10.1093/ps/79.8.1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During processing of poultry meat products, broiler carcasses come in contact with many solid surfaces. Bacteria from the carcasses can attach to wet equipment surfaces, form biofilms, and provide a source of cross-contamination for subsequent carcasses. In this study an array of common equipment surface materials was compared for susceptibility to bacterial attachment and biofilms. To model mixed microbial populations relevant to poultry processing, samples were taken directly from the processing line and exposed to the surface materials. Whole carcasses were rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline (100 mL), and the rinse was diluted in nutrient broth. Absorbance values (412 nm) of the suspensions at varying dilutions containing test surfaces were compared hourly with controls without test surfaces. The kinetics of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation on test surfaces were determined under the influence of pH, time, and bacterial cell density, and the elemental composition of the surface materials was determined by energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. Our results showed that surfaces vary in affinity for bacterial attachment and biofilm formation. Analysis by spectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy confirmed that attachment to stainless steel, polyethylene, and belting was not significantly different from controls. Attachment to picker-finger rubber was significantly less than attachment to stainless steel and the other surfaces. In fact, picker-finger rubber inhibits bacterial contamination. An increased understanding of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation will assist in the development of interventions to counteract these processes and, thereby, enhance plant sanitation and pathogen control.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Arnold
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Russell Research Center, Athens, Georgia 30604, USA.
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Mead G, Gibson C, Tinker D. A model system for the study of microbial colonization in poultry defeathering machines. Lett Appl Microbiol 1995. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1995.tb01304.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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8
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Geornaras I, de Jesus A, van Zyl E, von Holy A. Microbiological survey of a South African poultry processing plant. J Basic Microbiol 1995; 35:73-82. [PMID: 7783001 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620350204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial populations associated with poultry processing were determined on neck skin samples, equipment surfaces and environmental samples by replicate surveys. Aerobic plate counts, Enterobacteriaceae counts, Enterobacteriaceae counts and Pseudomonas counts were performed by standard procedures and the prevalence of Listeria, presumptive Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus determined. Statistically significant (P < 0.05) increases in counts of all types of bacteria were obtained on product samples as a result of processing. Although bacterial counts on neck skin samples decreased by 0.3 to 0.4 log CFU g-1 after spray washing of carcasses, subsequent spinchilling and packaging of whole carcasses resulted in 0.7 to 1.2 log CFU g-1 increases. Bacterial numbers on equipment surfaces, however, decreased significantly from the "dirty" to the "clean" areas of the abattoir. Transport cages, "rubber fingers", defeathering curtains, shackles and conveyor belts repeatedly showed aerobic plate counts in excess of 5.0 log CFU 25 cm-2. Aerobic plate counts of scald tank and spinchiller water were 2 log CFU ml-1 higher than those of potable water samples. Bacterial numbers of the air in the "dirty" area were higher than those of the "clean" area. Listeria, presumptive Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from 27.6, 51.7 and 24.1% of all product samples, respectively, and Listeria and Staphylococcus aureus were also isolated from selected equipment surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Geornaras
- Department of Microbiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Hamilton MA, Ahmad M. Microbial Assessment of Poultry Processed in Jamaica. J APPL POULTRY RES 1992. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/1.4.389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Mead GC, Dodd CE. Incidence, origin and significance of staphylococci on processed poultry. SOCIETY FOR APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY SYMPOSIUM SERIES 1990; 19:81S-91S. [PMID: 2119068 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01800.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G C Mead
- Institute of Food Research, Bristol Laboratory, Langford, UK
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Mead GC, Norris AP, Bratchell N. Differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus from freshly slaughtered poultry and strains 'endemic' to processing plants by biochemical and physiological tests. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1989; 66:153-9. [PMID: 2708170 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1989.tb02464.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A comparison was made of 27 'endemic' strains of Staphylococcus aureus and 35 strains from freshly slaughtered birds, isolated at five commercial slaughterhouses processing chickens or turkeys. Of 112 biochemical and physiological tests used, 74 gave results which differed among the strains. Cluster analysis revealed several distinct groupings which were influenced by strain type, processing plant and bird origin; these included a single group at the 72% level of similarity containing most of the 'endemic' strains. In comparison with strains from freshly slaughtered birds, a higher proportion of 'endemic' strains produced fibrinolysin, alpha-glucosidase and urease and were beta-haemolytic on sheep-blood agar. The 'endemic' type also showed a greater tendency to coagulate human but not bovine plasma, and to produce mucoid growth and clumping. The last two properties, relevant to colonization of processing equipment, were less evident in heart infusion broth than in richer media or process water collected during defeathering of the birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Mead
- AFRC Institute of Food Research-Bristol Laboratory, Langford, UK
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Dodd C, Mead G, Waites W. Detection of the site of contamination by Staphylococcus aureus within the defeathering machinery of a poultry processing plant. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01253.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Purdy J, Dodd C, Fowler D, Waites W. Increase in microbial contamination of defeathering machinery in a poultry processing plant after changes in the method of processing. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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MEAD GC, ADAMS BW. Chlorine resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from turkeys and turkey products. Lett Appl Microbiol 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1986.tb01566.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Thompson JK, Holding AJ. Plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus associated with live and processed poultry. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1986; 60:277-87. [PMID: 3013827 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1986.tb01734.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A series of 23 strains of Staphylococcus aureus originally isolated from processed poultry was screened for the presence of plasmids. Plasmids were more common in strains of Staph. aureus characteristically associated with live poultry than with strains endemic in poultry plants and strains of human origin. Two plasmids with sizes of 1.65 and 18.2 kilobase pairs (kBp) were present in three strains considered typical of Staph. aureus forma specialis 'altilis' and two plasmids with sizes of 1.65 and 17 kBp were present in three of four strains of Staph. aureus var. gallinae. A 1.65 kBp plasmid was present in all seven strains of these poultry biotypes and in three of 14 'endemic' strains. All the 1.65 kBp plasmids were shown by blot hybridization to share sequence homology. There was also some sequence homology between the 18.2 kBp and 17 kBp plasmids. These results were supported by restriction enzyme digest analyses. A study of cured derivatives of strain PS221 f.sp. 'altilis' suggested that the 18.2 kBp plasmid encoded the genetic determinant(s) responsible for caseolysis. Both the 1.65 and the 18.2 kBp plasmids also exerted an effect on the production of acid from lactose. In no other characteristic did cured strains resemble the plasmid-free 'endemic' strains. This was therefore consistent with the notion that the genetic determinants associated with the cultural characteristics of endemic strains are chromosomally located.
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Adams BW, Mead GC. Incidence and properties of Staphylococcus aureus associated with turkeys during processing and further-processing operations. J Hyg (Lond) 1983; 91:479-90. [PMID: 6663063 PMCID: PMC2129338 DOI: 10.1017/s0022172400060526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of Staphylococcus aureus on turkeys sampled at various stages of processing and further-processing was determined on four occasions at each of three different processing plants. For freshly-slaughtered birds, counts from neck skin varied from plant to plant over the range less than 10(2) to greater than 10(5)/g but in all cases the corresponding counts obtained from carcasses sampled after chilling rarely exceeded 10(3)/g and the same was true for samples of mechanically recovered meat (MRM), the final raw product examined. Despite the limited susceptibility of isolates from the different factories to typing by means of either standard human or poultry bacteriophages (55-94% untypable), evidence was obtained with the aid of biotyping for the presence of both human and animal-derived strains. However, some biotypes isolated from MRM were not detected at earlier stages of processing. At one processing plant, an "indigenous' type of S. aureus was clearly demonstrated. It occurred in high numbers in the defeathering machines (up to 10(5)/swab), was found on carcasses at all subsequent stages of processing over the survey period and was shown to survive routine cleaning and disinfection procedures. Isolates of this type produced unusually large amounts of extracellular "slime' in artificial culture. Two of the three processing plants yielded isolates which were enterotoxigenic. Of 55 strains from Plant 1, 60% produced enterotoxin C and all were of the "indigenous' type. In the case of Plant 2, only two type D- and one type F-producing strain were found.
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Kibenge FS, Robertson MD, Wilcox GE. Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry in Australia. II. Epidemiology of strains associated with tenosynovitis. Vet Microbiol 1982; 7:485-91. [PMID: 7164340 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1135(82)90065-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriophage typing of Staphylococcus aureus from different outbreaks of tenosynovitis in broiler breeder replacement chickens showed that, although a mixture of phage types was present on affected farms, there was a predominant phage type isolated from lesions of affected chickens. The predominant phage type isolated from chickens in different outbreaks was variable. The source of S. aureus associated with tenosynovitis appeared to be a resident population present on the skin.
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Kibenge FS, Wilcox GE, Perret D. Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry in Australia. I. Phage typing and cultural characteristics. Vet Microbiol 1982; 7:471-83. [PMID: 6219495 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1135(82)90064-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The phage typing and cultural characteristics of 574 strains of S. aureus of poultry origin in Australia were examined. With the avian phage set of Shimizu (1979) it was possible to type 74.2% of strains. A number of significant variations in the phage typing patterns of Australian strains compared to those reported from Japan and Europe were observed. A lower proportion of Australian strains were of avian phage group I and a higher proportion of group III. A high proportion of strains were of mixed lytic groups. No locally isolated phages were able to increase significantly the percentage of typeable strains, although four local phages appeared to be of greater value for phage typing poultry strains of S. aureus than some other phages of the avian phage set. The international (human) phage set was of limited value in typing Australian strains of poultry origin although four strains were identified which were indistinguishable from strains of human origin. Using cultural characteristics of the strains in conjunction with phage typing, the Australian strains of S. aureus were assigned to one of three major groups and nine subgroups. A list of typing phages considered to be valuable for use on Australian poultry strains of S. aureus is given.
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Notermans S, Dufrenne J, van Leeuwen WJ. Contamination of broiler chickens by Staphylococcus aureus during processing; incidence and origin. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1982; 52:275-80. [PMID: 7202000 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1982.tb04851.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Harvey J, Patterson JT, Gibbs PA. Enterotoxigenicity of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from poultry: raw poultry carcases as a potential food-poisoning hazard. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1982; 52:251-8. [PMID: 7201999 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1982.tb04847.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Thompson JK, Gibbs PA, Patterson JT. Staphylococcus aureus in commercial laying flocks: incidence and characteristics of strains isolated from chicks, pullets and hens in an integrated commercial enterprise. Br Poult Sci 1980; 21:315-30. [PMID: 7407665 DOI: 10.1080/00071668008416675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
1. Staphylococcus aureus was able to colonise the surface of chicks as young as 1 d old. 2. The organism was detected in a hatchery particularly in the debris from the hatchers and on the working surfaces at the sexing and vaccination areas. 3. The degree of surface colonisation of chicks and pullets was low during rearing but rose to a maximum at mid-lay (50 weeks) when the organism was readily detectable on almost all hens. 4. Strains of Staphylococcus aureus were characterised by phage-typing and cultural characteristics and found to belong predominantly to poultry phage group B2 of Gibbs et al. (1978a). 5. A detailed description of poultry phage group B2 strains is presented; strains of this type can be considered as a second "live-bird" ecovar when compared with Staph. aureus var. gallinae of Witte et al. (1977).
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Gibbs PA, Patterson JT, Harvey J. Interactive growth of Staphylococcus aureus strains with a poultry skin microflora in a diffusion apparatus. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1980; 48:191-205. [PMID: 6450740 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1980.tb01218.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Thompson JK, Patterson JT, Gibbs PA. The use of a new phage set for typing poultry strains of Staphylococcus aureus obtained from seven countries. Br Poult Sci 1980; 21:95-102. [PMID: 6445222 DOI: 10.1080/00071668008416642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
1. Eighty per cent of poultry strains of Staphylococcus aureus tested from French, Belgian, English, West German, Japanese and Argentinian sources were typable using a set of typing phages isolated in this laboratory. Strains from Bulgaria, however, with few exceptions were not typable with this phage set. 2. Strains isolated from lesions generally resembled those from apparently healthy poultry. 3. The existence of two distinct Staph. aureus biotypes on poultry was confirmed by isolates from six of the countries; one of these biotypes closely resembled Staph. aureus variety gallinae as described by Witte et al. (1977).
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