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Sladky KK. Treatment of Pain in Fish. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2023; 26:11-26. [PMID: 36402477 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of our current understanding of clinical analgesic use in fish. Recently, the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of several analgesic drugs for use in fish have been investigated, and the most important data indicates that μ-opioid agonist drugs (e.g, morphine) are consistently effective as analgesics across fish species. In addition, bath application of some analgesic drugs may be useful, which affords multiple methods for delivering analgesics to fish. Although few published studies of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs administered to fish show promise, we have much to learn about the analgesic efficacy of most drugs in this class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt K Sladky
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53705 USA.
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Díaz-Rúa A, Chivite M, Comesaña S, Conde-Sieira M, Soengas JL. The Opioid System in Rainbow Trout Telencephalon Is Probably Involved in the Hedonic Regulation of Food Intake. Front Physiol 2022; 13:800218. [PMID: 35299666 PMCID: PMC8921556 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.800218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesize that opioids are involved in the regulation of food intake in fish through homeostatic and hedonic mechanisms. Therefore, we evaluated in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hypothalamus and telencephalon changes in precursors, endogenous ligands and receptors of the opioid system under different situations aimed to induce changes in the homeostatic (through fasted/fed/refed fish) and hedonic (through feeding fish a control or a palatable high-fat diet) regulation of food intake. No major changes occurred in parameters assessed related with the nutritional condition of fish (fasted/fed/refed), allowing us to suggest that the opioid system seems not to have an important role in the homeostatic regulation of food intake in rainbow trout. The responses observed in telencephalon of rainbow trout fed the palatable high-fat diet included a decrease in mRNA abundance of the opioid precursor penka, in a way similar to that known in mammals, and increased mRNA abundance of the opioid receptors oprd1 and oprk1 supporting a role for telencephalic opioid system in the hedonic regulation of food intake in fish.
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PHARMACOKINETIC, PHARMACODYNAMIC, AND TOXICOLOGY STUDY OF ROBENACOXIB IN RAINBOW TROUT ( ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:529-537. [PMID: 34130395 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Postoperative antinociception control in fish is currently suboptimal, as commonly used antiinflammatory drugs last for only a few hours at tested temperatures. Therefore, long-acting anti-inflammatory drugs, such as robenacoxib, could improve the welfare of fish. The pharmacokinetics, duration of antinociceptive action, and potential adverse effects of robenacoxib were evaluated through two prospective randomized blinded trials in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Six healthy rainbow trout received a single IM administration of robenacoxib (2 mg/kg), and two control fish received the same volume of saline IM. Blood samples were collected at predetermined time points for 5 d. Plasma robenacoxib concentrations were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution hybrid orbitrap mass spectrometry and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis. Ten additional rainbow trout received an intralabial injection of 0.05 ml of 2% acetic acid following a previously validated nociceptive model. The treated group (n = 6) received 2 mg/kg of robenacoxib IM and the control group (n = 4) received an equivalent volume of saline IM. The behavior, appetite, and opercular rate of the fish were evaluated every hour for 5 h, then once daily for 3 d. All 12 treated trout and 6 controls underwent histopathologic evaluation. Average maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 329.9 ± 137.3 ng/ml observed at 2.1 ± 0.7 h (Tmax) and terminal half-life was 12.6 ± 2.27 h. Plasma concentrations described as antinociceptive in domestic carnivores were measured for 3-4 d. This dose was associated with a significant decrease in rocking behavior (P = 0.017). No adverse effects were detected clinically nor on histopathology. Robenacoxib administered IM at 2 mg/kg appears to be safe and may provide an antinociceptive effect in rainbow trout. This study presents a new therapeutic option to provide long-lasting antinociception in rainbow trout.
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Williams CJA, James LE, Bertelsen MF, Wang T. Analgesia for non-mammalian vertebrates. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2019.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Sloman KA, Bouyoucos IA, Brooks EJ, Sneddon LU. Ethical considerations in fish research. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2019; 94:556-577. [PMID: 30838660 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Fishes are used in a wide range of scientific studies, from conservation research with potential benefits to the species used to biomedical research with potential human benefits. Fish research can take place in both laboratories and field environments and methods used represent a continuum from non-invasive observations, handling, through to experimental manipulation. While some countries have legislation or guidance regarding the use of fish in research, many do not and there exists a diversity of scientific opinions on the sentience of fish and how we determine welfare. Nevertheless, there is a growing pressure on the scientific community to take more responsibility for the animals they work with through maximising the benefits of their research to humans or animals while minimising welfare or survival costs to their study animals. In this review, we focus primarily on the refinement of common methods used in fish research based on emerging knowledge with the aim of improving the welfare of fish used in scientific studies. We consider the use of anaesthetics and analgesics and how we mark individuals for identification purposes. We highlight the main ethical concerns facing researchers in both laboratory and field environments and identify areas that need urgent future research. We hope that this review will help inform those who wish to refine their ethical practices and stimulate thought among fish researchers for further avenues of refinement. Improved ethics and welfare of fishes will inevitably lead to increased scientific rigour and is in the best interests of both fishes and scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Sloman
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, UK
| | - Ian A Bouyoucos
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Edward J Brooks
- Cape Eleuthera Island School, Rock Sound, Eleuthera, The Bahamas
| | - Lynne U Sneddon
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Magalhães FEA, Batista FLA, Lima LMG, Abrante IDA, Batista FLA, Abrante IDA, de Araújo JIF, Santos SAAR, de Oliveira BA, Raposo RDS, Campos AR. Adult Zebrafish (Danio rerio) As a Model for the Study of Corneal Antinociceptive Compounds. Zebrafish 2018; 15:566-574. [DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2018.1633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Ernani Alves Magalhães
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
- Núcleo de Biologia Experimental (NUBEX), Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Francisco Lucas Alves Batista
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Luiza Michelly Gonçalves Lima
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Izamar de Araújo Abrante
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
| | | | - Izabel de Araújo Abrante
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
| | - José Ismael Feitosa de Araújo
- Laboratório de Bioprospecção de Produtos Naturais e Biotecnologia (LBPNB), Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), Tauá, Ceará, Brazil
| | | | | | - Ramon da Silva Raposo
- Núcleo de Biologia Experimental (NUBEX), Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Adriana Rolim Campos
- Núcleo de Biologia Experimental (NUBEX), Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Fortaleza, Brazil
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Steenbergen PJ. Response of zebrafish larvae to mild electrical stimuli: A 96-well setup for behavioural screening. J Neurosci Methods 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Baldisserotto B, Parodi TV, Stevens ED. Lack of postexposure analgesic efficacy of low concentrations of eugenol in zebrafish. Vet Anaesth Analg 2017; 45:48-56. [PMID: 29239756 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2017.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the postexposure analgesic efficacy of low doses of eugenol in zebrafish. STUDY DESIGN Prospective experimental study. ANIMALS A total of 76 large adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). METHODS Fish swimming behavior (median velocity, freeze time, high-speed swimming and distance moved in the vertical direction) was recorded in a 1.6 L video arena before and after exposure to eugenol (0, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 mg L-1). In a second experiment, fish were anesthetized with 2-phenoxy-ethanol and treated with an injection of 5% acetic acid (noxious stimulus), and then exposed to 0, 1, 2 and 5 mg L-1 eugenol. The fish swimming behavior was also recorded. RESULTS The higher doses (10 and 20 mg L-1) reduced the median velocity, high-speed swimming and distance moved in the vertical direction, and increased the freeze time. Zebrafish behavior was not altered by eugenol (1, 2 and 5 mg L-1) after noxious stimulation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The change in the behavior of zebrafish associated with a noxious stimulus can be monitored and is a good model for studying analgesia in fish. Eugenol (10 and 20 mg L-1) induced zebrafish sedation. The response after a noxious stimulus was not affected by postexposure to lower doses, and thus we cannot recommend its use as an analgesic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo Baldisserotto
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
| | - Thaylise V Parodi
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - E Don Stevens
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
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Lopez-Luna J, Al-Jubouri Q, Al-Nuaimy W, Sneddon LU. Reduction in activity by noxious chemical stimulation is ameliorated by immersion in analgesic drugs in zebrafish. J Exp Biol 2017; 220:1451-1458. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.146969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Research has recently demonstrated that larval zebrafish show similar molecular responses to nociception to those of adults. Our study explored whether unprotected larval zebrafish exhibited altered behaviour after exposure to noxious chemicals and screened a range of analgesic drugs to determine their efficacy to reduce these responses. This approach aimed to validate larval zebrafish as a reliable replacement for adults as well as providing a high-throughput means of analysing behavioural responses. Zebrafish at 5 days post-fertilization were exposed to known noxious stimuli: acetic acid (0.01%, 0.1% and 0.25%) and citric acid (0.1%, 1% and 5%). The behavioural response of each was recorded and analysed using novel tracking software that measures time spent active in 25 larvae at one time. Subsequently, the efficacy of aspirin, lidocaine, morphine and flunixin as analgesics after exposure to 0.1% acetic acid was tested. Larvae exposed to 0.1% and 0.25% acetic acid spent less time active, whereas those exposed to 0.01% acetic acid and 0.1–5% citric acid showed an increase in swimming activity. Administration of 2.5 mg l−1 aspirin, 5 mg l−1 lidocaine and 48 mg l−1 morphine prevented the behavioural changes induced by acetic acid. These results suggest that larvae respond to a noxious challenge in a similar way to adult zebrafish and other vertebrates and that the effect of nociception on activity can be ameliorated by using analgesics. Therefore, adopting larval zebrafish could represent a direct replacement of a protected adult fish with a non-protected form in pain- and nociception-related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Lopez-Luna
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Qussay Al-Jubouri
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK
| | - Waleed Al-Nuaimy
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK
| | - Lynne U. Sneddon
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
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Stevens ED, Arlinghaus R, Browman HI, Cooke SJ, Cowx IG, Diggles BK, Key B, Rose JD, Sawynok W, Schwab A, Skiftesvik AB, Watson CA, Wynne CDL. Stress is not pain. Comment on Elwood and Adams (2015) 'Electric shock causes physiological stress responses in shore crabs, consistent with prediction of pain'. Biol Lett 2016; 12:rsbl.2015.1006. [PMID: 27048466 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2015.1006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- E D Stevens
- Department of Biomedical Science, Atlantic Veterinary College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| | - R Arlinghaus
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - H I Browman
- Institute of Marine Research, Storebø, Norway
| | - S J Cooke
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - I G Cowx
- Hull International Fisheries Institute, University of Hull, Hull, Humberside, UK
| | | | - B Key
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - J D Rose
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming Laramie, WY, USA
| | - W Sawynok
- Infofish Australia, Frenchville, Australia
| | | | | | - C A Watson
- Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - C D L Wynne
- Department Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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Baker TR, Baker BB, Johnson SM, Sladky KK. Comparative analgesic efficacy of morphine sulfate and butorphanol tartrate in koi (Cyprinus carpio) undergoing unilateral gonadectomy. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2016; 243:882-90. [PMID: 24004238 DOI: 10.2460/javma.243.6.882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify pain-related behaviors and assess the effects of butorphanol tartrate and morphine sulfate in koi (Cyprinus carpio) undergoing unilateral gonadectomy. Design-Prospective study. ANIMALS 90 adult male and female koi. PROCEDURES Each fish received saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (which is physiologically compatible with fish) IM, butorphanol (10 mg/kg [4.5 mg/lb], IM), or morphine (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb], IM) as an injection only (6 fish/treatment); an injection with anesthesia and surgery (12 fish/treatment); or an injection with anesthesia but without surgery (12 fish/treatment). Physiologic and behavioral data were recorded 12 hours before and at intervals after treatment. RESULTS Compared with baseline values, the saline solution-surgery group had significantly decreased respiratory rates (at 12 to 24 hours), food consumption assessed as a percentage of floating pellets consumed (at 0 to 36 hours), and activity score (at 0 to 48 hours). Respiratory rate decreased in all butorphanol-treated fish; significant decreases were detected at fewer time points following morphine administration. In the butorphanol-surgery group, the value for food consumption initially decreased but returned to baseline values within 3 hours after treatment; food consumption did not change in the morphine-surgery group. Surgery resulted in decreased activity, regardless of treatment, with the most pronounced effect in the saline solution-surgery group. Changes in location in water column, interactive behavior, and hiding behavior were not significantly different among groups. Butorphanol and morphine administration was associated with temporary buoyancy problems and temporary bouts of excessive activity, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Butorphanol and morphine appeared to have an analgesic effect in koi, but morphine administration caused fewer deleterious adverse effects. Food consumption appeared to be a reliable indicator of pain in koi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracie R Baker
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Key B. Fish do not feel pain and its implications for understanding phenomenal consciousness. BIOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY 2014; 30:149-165. [PMID: 25798021 PMCID: PMC4356734 DOI: 10.1007/s10539-014-9469-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Phenomenal consciousness or the subjective experience of feeling sensory stimuli is fundamental to human existence. Because of the ubiquity of their subjective experiences, humans seem to readily accept the anthropomorphic extension of these mental states to other animals. Humans will typically extrapolate feelings of pain to animals if they respond physiologically and behaviourally to noxious stimuli. The alternative view that fish instead respond to noxious stimuli reflexly and with a limited behavioural repertoire is defended within the context of our current understanding of the neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of mental states. Consequently, a set of fundamental properties of neural tissue necessary for feeling pain or experiencing affective states in vertebrates is proposed. While mammals and birds possess the prerequisite neural architecture for phenomenal consciousness, it is concluded that fish lack these essential characteristics and hence do not feel pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Key
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072 Australia
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Antinociceptive effects of buprenorphine in zebrafish larvae: An alternative for rodent models to study pain and nociception? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-fifth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2012 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
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Wolkers CPB, Barbosa Junior A, Menescal-de-Oliveira L, Hoffmann A. Stress-induced antinociception in fish reversed by naloxone. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71175. [PMID: 23936261 PMCID: PMC3728202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain perception in non-mammalian vertebrates such as fish is a controversial issue. We demonstrate that, in the fish Leporinus macrocephalus, an imposed restraint can modulate the behavioral response to a noxious stimulus, specifically the subcutaneous injection of 3% formaldehyde. In the first experiment, formaldehyde was applied immediately after 3 or 5 min of the restraint. Inhibition of the increase in locomotor activity in response to formaldehyde was observed, which suggests a possible restraint-induced antinociception. In the second experiment, the noxious stimulus was applied 0, 5, 10 and 15 min after the restraint, and both 3 and 5 min of restraint promoted short-term antinociception of approximately 5 min. In experiments 3 and 4, an intraperitoneal injection of naloxone (30 mg.kg(-1)) was administered 30 min prior to the restraint. The 3- minute restraint-induced antinociception was blocked by pretreatment with naloxone, but the corresponding 5-minute response was not. One possible explanation for this result is that an opioid and a non-preferential μ-opioid and/or non-opioid mechanism participate in this response modulation. Furthermore, we observed that both the 3- and 5- minutes restraint were severely stressful events for the organism, promoting marked increases in serum cortisol levels. These data indicate that the response to a noxious stimulus can be modulated by an environmental stressor in fish, as is the case in mammals. To our knowledge, this study is the first evidence for the existence of an endogenous antinociceptive system that is activated by an acute standardized stress in fish. Additionally, it characterizes the antinociceptive response induced by stress in terms of its time course and the opioid mediation, providing information for understanding the evolution of nociception modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Patrícia Bejo Wolkers
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
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The effect of morphine on changes in behaviour and physiology in intraperitoneally vaccinated Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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