1
|
Michálek O, King GF, Pekár S. Prey specificity of predatory venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38991997 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Venom represents a key adaptation of many venomous predators, allowing them to immobilise prey quickly through chemical rather than physical warfare. Evolutionary arms races between prey and a predator are believed to be the main factor influencing the potency and composition of predatory venoms. Predators with narrowly restricted diets are expected to evolve specifically potent venom towards their focal prey, with lower efficacy on alternative prey. Here, we evaluate hypotheses on the evolution of prey-specific venom, focusing on the effect of restricted diet, prey defences, and prey resistance. Prey specificity as a potential evolutionary dead end is also discussed. We then provide an overview of the current knowledge on venom prey specificity, with emphasis on snakes, cone snails, and spiders. As the current evidence for venom prey specificity is still quite limited, we also overview the best approaches and methods for its investigation and provide a brief summary of potential model groups. Finally, possible applications of prey-specific toxins are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Heptinstall TC, Strickland JL, Rosales-Garcia RA, Rautsaw RM, Simpson CL, Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Hogan MP, Borja M, Fernandes Campos P, Grazziotin FG, Rokyta DR, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Parkinson CL. Venom phenotype conservation suggests integrated specialization in a lizard-eating snake. Toxicon 2023; 229:107135. [PMID: 37146732 PMCID: PMC11000244 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Biological specialization reduces the size of niche space while increasing efficiency in the use of available resources. Specialization often leads to phenotypic changes via natural selection aligning with niche space constraints. Commonly observed changes are in size, shape, behavior, and traits associated with feeding. One often selected trait for dietary specialization is venom, which, in snakes, often shows variation dependent on diet across and within species. The Neotropical Blunt-headed Treesnake (Imantodes cenchoa) is a highly specialized, rear-fanged, arboreal, lizard hunter that displays a long thin body, enlarged eyes, and a large Duvernoy's gland. However, toxin characterization of I. cenchoa has never been completed. Here, we use RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to assemble, annotate, and analyze the venom gland transcriptomes of four I. cenchoa from across their range. We find a lack of significant venom variation at the sequence and expression levels, suggesting venom conservation across the species. We propose this conservation provides evidence of a specialized venom repertoire, adapted to maximize efficiency of capturing and processing lizards. Importantly, this study provides the most complete venom gland transcriptomes of I. cenchoa and evidence of venom specialization in a rear-fanged snake, giving insight into selective pressures of venom across all snake species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA
| | - Cassandra L Simpson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universdad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35070, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | | | - Felipe G Grazziotin
- Laboratório Especial de Colecões Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | | | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gao B, Huang Y, Peng C, Lin B, Liao Y, Bian C, Yang J, Shi Q. High-Throughput Prediction and Design of Novel Conopeptides for Biomedical Research and Development. BIODESIGN RESEARCH 2022; 2022:9895270. [PMID: 37850131 PMCID: PMC10521759 DOI: 10.34133/2022/9895270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Cone snail venoms have been considered a valuable treasure for international scientists and businessmen, mainly due to their pharmacological applications in development of marine drugs for treatment of various human diseases. To date, around 800 Conus species are recorded, and each of them produces over 1,000 venom peptides (termed as conopeptides or conotoxins). This reflects the high diversity and complexity of cone snails, although most of their venoms are still uncharacterized. Advanced multiomics (such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics) approaches have been recently developed to mine diverse Conus venom samples, with the main aim to predict and identify potentially interesting conopeptides in an efficient way. Some bioinformatics techniques have been applied to predict and design novel conopeptide sequences, related targets, and their binding modes. This review provides an overview of current knowledge on the high diversity of conopeptides and multiomics advances in high-throughput prediction of novel conopeptide sequences, as well as molecular modeling and design of potential drugs based on the predicted or validated interactions between these toxins and their molecular targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bingmiao Gao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 570102, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518081, China
| | - Chao Peng
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518081, China
- BGI-Marine Research Institute for Biomedical Technology, Shenzhen Huahong Marine Biomedicine Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, Guangdong 518119, China
| | - Bo Lin
- Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Intervention, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 570102, China
| | - Yanling Liao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 570102, China
| | - Chao Bian
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518081, China
| | - Jiaan Yang
- Research and Development Department, Micro Pharmtech Ltd., Wuhan, Hubei 430075, China
| | - Qiong Shi
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518081, China
- BGI-Marine Research Institute for Biomedical Technology, Shenzhen Huahong Marine Biomedicine Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, Guangdong 518119, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Divergent Specialization of Simple Venom Gene Profiles among Rear-Fanged Snake Genera ( Helicops and Leptodeira, Dipsadinae, Colubridae). Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14070489. [PMID: 35878227 PMCID: PMC9319703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Many venomous animals express toxins that show extraordinary levels of variation both within and among species. In snakes, most studies of venom variation focus on front-fanged species in the families Viperidae and Elapidae, even though rear-fanged snakes in other families vary along the same ecological axes important to venom evolution. Here we characterized venom gland transcriptomes from 19 snakes across two dipsadine rear-fanged genera (Leptodeira and Helicops, Colubridae) and two front-fanged genera (Bothrops, Viperidae; Micrurus, Elapidae). We compared patterns of composition, variation, and diversity in venom transcripts within and among all four genera. Venom gland transcriptomes of rear-fanged Helicops and Leptodeira and front-fanged Micrurus are each dominated by expression of single toxin families (C-type lectins, snake venom metalloproteinase, and phospholipase A2, respectively), unlike highly diverse front-fanged Bothrops venoms. In addition, expression patterns of congeners are much more similar to each other than they are to species from other genera. These results illustrate the repeatability of simple venom profiles in rear-fanged snakes and the potential for relatively constrained venom composition within genera.
Collapse
|
5
|
Mason AJ, Holding ML, Rautsaw RM, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL, Gibbs HL. Venom gene sequence diversity and expression jointly shape diet adaptation in pitvipers. Mol Biol Evol 2022; 39:6567549. [PMID: 35413123 PMCID: PMC9040050 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msac082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the joint roles of protein sequence variation and differential expression during adaptive evolution is a fundamental, yet largely unrealized goal of evolutionary biology. Here, we use phylogenetic path analysis to analyze a comprehensive venom-gland transcriptome dataset spanning three genera of pitvipers to identify the functional genetic basis of a key adaptation (venom complexity) linked to diet breadth (DB). The analysis of gene-family-specific patterns reveals that, for genes encoding two of the most important venom proteins (snake venom metalloproteases and snake venom serine proteases), there are direct, positive relationships between sequence diversity (SD), expression diversity (ED), and increased DB. Further analysis of gene-family diversification for these proteins showed no constraint on how individual lineages achieved toxin gene SD in terms of the patterns of paralog diversification. In contrast, another major venom protein family (PLA2s) showed no relationship between venom molecular diversity and DB. Additional analyses suggest that other molecular mechanisms—such as higher absolute levels of expression—are responsible for diet adaptation involving these venom proteins. Broadly, our findings argue that functional diversity generated through sequence and expression variations jointly determine adaptation in the key components of pitviper venoms, which mediate complex molecular interactions between the snakes and their prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Mason
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.,Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bucciarelli GM, Alsalek F, Kats LB, Green DB, Shaffer HB. Toxic Relationships and Arms-Race Coevolution Revisited. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2022; 10:63-80. [PMID: 35167315 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-013120-024716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Toxin evolution in animals is one of the most fascinating and complex subjects of scientific inquiry today. Gaining an understanding of toxins poses a multifaceted challenge given the diverse modes of acquisition, evolutionary adaptations, and abiotic components that affect toxin phenotypes. Here, we highlight some of the main genetic and ecological factors that influence toxin evolution and discuss the role of antagonistic interactions and coevolutionary dynamics in shaping the direction and extent of toxicity and resistance in animals. We focus on toxic Pacific newts (family Salamandridae, genus Taricha) as a system to investigate and better evaluate the widely distributed toxin they possess, tetrodotoxin (TTX), and the hypothesized model of arms-race coevolution with snake predators that is used to explain phenotypic patterns of newt toxicity. Finally, we propose an alternative coevolutionary model that incorporates TTX-producing bacteria and draws from an elicitor-receptor concept to explain TTX evolution and ecology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G M Bucciarelli
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA; , , .,La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Farid Alsalek
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA; , ,
| | - L B Kats
- Natural Science Division, Pepperdine University, Malibu, California, USA; ,
| | - D B Green
- Natural Science Division, Pepperdine University, Malibu, California, USA; ,
| | - H B Shaffer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA; , , .,La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Claunch NM, Holding M, Frazier JT, Huff EM, Schonour RB, Vernasco B, Moore IT, Rokyta DR, Taylor EN. Experimental Manipulation of Corticosterone Does Not Affect Venom Composition or Functional Activity in Free-Ranging Rattlesnakes. Physiol Biochem Zool 2021; 94:286-301. [PMID: 34166170 DOI: 10.1086/714936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractVenom is an integral feeding trait in many animal species. Although venom often varies ontogenetically, little is known about the proximate physiological mediators of venom variation within individuals. The glucocorticoid hormone corticosterone (CORT) can alter the transcription and activation of proteins, including homologues of snake venom components such as snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2). CORT is endogenously produced by snakes, varies seasonally and also in response to stress, and is a candidate endogenous mediator of changes in venom composition and functional activity. Here, we tested the hypothesis that CORT induces changes in snake venom by sampling the venom of wild adult rattlesnakes before and after they were treated with either empty (control) or CORT-filled (treatment) Silastic implants. We measured longitudinal changes in whole-venom composition, whole-venom total protein content, and enzymatic activity of SVMP and PLA2 components of venom. We also assessed the within-individual repeatability of venom components. Despite successfully elevating plasma CORT in the treatment group, we found no effect of CORT treatment or average plasma CORT level on any venom variables measured. Except for total protein content, venom components were highly repeatable within individuals ([Formula: see text]). Our results indicate that the effects of CORT, a hormone commonly associated with stress and metabolic functions, in adult rattlesnake venom are negligible. Our findings bode well for venom researchers and biomedical applications that rely on the consistency of venoms produced from potentially stressed individuals and provide an experimental framework for future studies of proximate mediators of venom variation across an individual's life span.
Collapse
|
8
|
Wood AW, Duda TF. Reticulate evolution in Conidae: Evidence of nuclear and mitochondrial introgression. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2021; 161:107182. [PMID: 33892099 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Conidae is a hyperdiverse family of marine snails that has many hallmarks of adaptive radiation. Hybridization and introgression may contribute to such instances of rapid diversification by generating novel gene combinations that facilitate exploitation of distinct niches. Here we evaluated whether or not these mechanisms may have contributed to the evolutionary history of a subgenus of Conidae (Virroconus). Several observations hint at evidence of past introgression for members of this group, including incongruence between phylogenetic relationships inferred from mitochondrial gene sequences and morphology and widespread sympatry of many Virroconus species in the Indo-West Pacific. We generated and analyzed transcriptome data of Virroconus species to (i) infer a robust nuclear phylogeny, (ii) assess mitochondrial and nuclear gene tree discordance, and (iii) formally test for introgression of nuclear loci. We identified introgression of mitochondrial genomes and nuclear gene regions between ancestors of one pair of Virroconus species, and mitochondrial introgression between another pair. We also found evidence of adaptive introgression of conotoxin venom loci between a third pair of species. Together, our results demonstrate that hybridization and introgression impacted the evolutionary history of Virroconus and hence may have contributed to the adaptive radiation of Conidae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W Wood
- University of Michigan, Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, 1105 North University Avenue, Biological Sciences Building, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1085, USA.
| | - Thomas F Duda
- University of Michigan, Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, 1105 North University Avenue, Biological Sciences Building, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1085, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gorson J, Fassio G, Lau ES, Holford M. Diet Diversity in Carnivorous Terebrid Snails Is Tied to the Presence and Absence of a Venom Gland. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020108. [PMID: 33540609 PMCID: PMC7912948 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions are thought to play a driving role in animal evolution, especially for groups that have developed venom as their predatory strategy. However, how the diet of venomous animals influences the composition of venom arsenals remains uncertain. Two prevailing hypotheses to explain the relationship between diet and venom composition focus on prey preference and the types of compounds in venom, and a positive correlation between dietary breadth and the number of compounds in venom. Here, we examined venom complexity, phylogenetic relationship, collection depth, and biogeography of the Terebridae (auger snails) to determine if repeated innovations in terebrid foregut anatomy and venom composition correspond to diet variation. We performed the first molecular study of the diet of terebrid marine snails by metabarcoding the gut content of 71 terebrid specimens from 17 species. Our results suggest that the presence or absence of a venom gland is strongly correlated with dietary breadth. Specifically, terebrid species without a venom gland displayed greater diversity in their diet. Additionally, we propose a revision of the definition of venom complexity in conoidean snails to more accurately capture the breadth of ecological influences. These findings suggest that prey diet is an important factor in terebrid venom evolution and diversification and further investigations of other understudied organisms, like terebrids, are needed to develop robust hypotheses in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Gorson
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Graduate Programs in Biology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, The American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA
| | - Giulia Fassio
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, I-00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms (BEOM), Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, I-00198 Rome, Italy
| | - Emily S. Lau
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Mandë Holford
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Graduate Programs in Biology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, The American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abalde S, Tenorio MJ, Afonso CML, Zardoya R. Comparative transcriptomics of the venoms of continental and insular radiations of West African cones. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200794. [PMID: 32546094 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The transcriptomes of the venom glands of 13 closely related species of vermivorous cones endemic to West Africa from genera Africonus and Varioconus were sequenced and venom repertoires compared within a phylogenetic framework using one Kalloconus species as outgroup. The total number of conotoxin precursors per species varied between 108 and 221. Individuals of the same species shared about one-fourth of the total conotoxin precursors. The number of common sequences was drastically reduced in the pairwise comparisons between closely related species, and the phylogenetical signal was totally eroded at the inter-generic level (no sequence was identified as shared derived), due to the intrinsic high variability of these secreted peptides. A common set of four conotoxin precursor superfamilies (T, O1, O2 and M) was expanded in all studied cone species, and thus, they are considered the basic venom toolkit for hunting and defense in the West African vermivorous cone snails. Maximum-likelihood ancestral character reconstructions inferred shared conotoxin precursors preferentially at internal nodes close to the tips of the phylogeny (between individuals and between closely related species) as well as in the common ancestor of Varioconus. Besides the common toolkit, the two genera showed significantly distinct catalogues of conotoxin precursors in terms of type of superfamilies present and the abundance of members per superfamily, but had similar relative expression levels indicating functional convergence. Differential expression comparisons between vermivorous and piscivorous cones highlighted the importance of the A and S superfamilies for fish hunting and defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Abalde
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Manuel J Tenorio
- Departamento CMIM y Q. Inorgánica-INBIO, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Carlos M L Afonso
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Rafael Zardoya
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Lyons K, Dugon MM, Healy K. Diet Breadth Mediates the Prey Specificity of Venom Potency in Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020074. [PMID: 31979380 PMCID: PMC7076792 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms are best known for their ability to incapacitate prey. In predatory groups, venom potency is predicted to reflect ecological and evolutionary drivers relating to diet. While venoms have been found to have preyspecific potencies, the role of diet breadth on venom potencies has yet to be tested at large macroecological scales. Here, using a comparative analysis of 100 snake species, we show that the evolution of prey-specific venom potencies is contingent on the breadth of a species' diet. We find that while snake venom is more potent when tested on species closely related to natural prey items, we only find this prey-specific pattern in species with taxonomically narrow diets. While we find that the taxonomic diversity of a snakes' diet mediates the prey specificity of its venom, the species richness of its diet was not found to affect these prey-specific potency patterns. This indicates that the physiological diversity of a species' diet is an important driver of the evolution of generalist venom potencies. These findings suggest that the venoms of species with taxonomically diverse diets may be better suited to incapacitating novel prey species and hence play an important role for species within changing environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Lyons
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (K.H.); Tel.: +353-91-493744 (K.H.)
| | | | - Kevin Healy
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (K.H.); Tel.: +353-91-493744 (K.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jin AH, Muttenthaler M, Dutertre S, Himaya SWA, Kaas Q, Craik DJ, Lewis RJ, Alewood PF. Conotoxins: Chemistry and Biology. Chem Rev 2019; 119:11510-11549. [PMID: 31633928 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The venom of the marine predatory cone snails (genus Conus) has evolved for prey capture and defense, providing the basis for survival and rapid diversification of the now estimated 750+ species. A typical Conus venom contains hundreds to thousands of bioactive peptides known as conotoxins. These mostly disulfide-rich and well-structured peptides act on a wide range of targets such as ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, transporters, and enzymes. Conotoxins are of interest to neuroscientists as well as drug developers due to their exquisite potency and selectivity, not just against prey but also mammalian targets, thereby providing a rich source of molecular probes and therapeutic leads. The rise of integrated venomics has accelerated conotoxin discovery with now well over 10,000 conotoxin sequences published. However, their structural and pharmacological characterization lags considerably behind. In this review, we highlight the diversity of new conotoxins uncovered since 2014, their three-dimensional structures and folds, novel chemical approaches to their syntheses, and their value as pharmacological tools to unravel complex biology. Additionally, we discuss challenges and future directions for the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ai-Hua Jin
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - Markus Muttenthaler
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia.,Institute of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry , University of Vienna , 1090 Vienna , Austria
| | - Sebastien Dutertre
- Département des Acides Amines, Peptides et Protéines, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5247, Université Montpellier 2-Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique , Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron , Place Eugène Bataillon , 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5 , France
| | - S W A Himaya
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - Quentin Kaas
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - David J Craik
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - Richard J Lewis
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - Paul F Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane Queensland 4072 , Australia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mathé-Hubert H, Kremmer L, Colinet D, Gatti JL, Van Baaren J, Delava É, Poirié M. Variation in the Venom of Parasitic Wasps, Drift, or Selection? Insights From a Multivariate QST Analysis. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
14
|
Michálek O, Řezáč M, Líznarová E, Symondson WOC, Pekár S. Silk versus venom: alternative capture strategies employed by closely related myrmecophagous spiders. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Milan Řezáč
- Biodiversity Lab, Crop Research Institute, Drnovská, Prague – Ruzyně, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Líznarová
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - William O C Symondson
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, UK
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská, Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Pekár S, Bočánek O, Michálek O, Petráková L, Haddad CR, Šedo O, Zdráhal Z. Venom gland size and venom complexity-essential trophic adaptations of venomous predators: A case study using spiders. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:4257-4269. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Bočánek
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petráková
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Charles R. Haddad
- Department of Zoology & Entomology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Pekár S, Líznarová E, Bočánek O, Zdráhal Z. Venom of prey-specialized spiders is more toxic to their preferred prey: A result of prey-specific toxins. J Anim Ecol 2018; 87:1639-1652. [PMID: 30125357 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In specialized predators, a variety of adaptations have evolved to such a level of specificity that they allow very effective exploitation of focal prey. Venom is an essential adaptive trait of predatory venomous species, such as spiders, yet our knowledge of spider venom is incomplete. In agreement with the prey preference hypothesis, we expected that the venom of spider specialists should be more toxic to focal than to alternative prey, because it is composed of prey-specific toxins. Here we used spiders with three types of trophic specializations: specialists that were ant-eating, termite-eating and spider-eating. We compared the efficacy of prey capture of preferred and alternative prey (measured as paralysis latency) with that of related generalists and profiled the venom of the studied species using proteomic methods. We used 22 spider species: six myrmecophagous, two termitophagous, three araneophagous and 11 euryphagous generalist species belonging to different families. We found that ten of the eleven specialist species induced significantly shorter paralysis latency in preferred prey than in alternative prey. Generalists exhibited either similar efficiency on both prey types or slightly higher efficiency on preferred prey. Multivariate analysis of proteomic profiles (peptides and proteins) revealed significant differences between trophic specializations, particularly in peptides. Specialists appear to have venom composed of unique specific compounds as revealed by the multivariate ordination and indicator analysis. These components are likely prey-specific toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Líznarová
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Bočánek
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gao B, Peng C, Chen Q, Zhang J, Shi Q. Mitochondrial genome sequencing of a vermivorous cone snail Conus quercinus supports the correlative analysis between phylogenetic relationships and dietary types of Conus species. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193053. [PMID: 30059499 PMCID: PMC6066214 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) sequence of a worm-hunting cone snail, Conus quercinus, was reported in this study. Its mitogenome, the longest one (16,460 bp) among reported Conus specie, is composed of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes and one D-loop region. The mitochondrial gene arrangement is highly-conserved and identical to other reported. However, the D-loop region of C. quercinus is the longest (943 bp) with the higher A+T content (71.3%) and a long AT tandem repeat stretch (68 bp). Subsequent phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that three different dietary types (vermivorous, molluscivorous and piscivorous) of cone snails are clustered separately, suggesting that the phylogenetics of cone snails is related to their dietary types. In conclusion, our current work improves our understanding of the mitogenomic structure and evolutionary status of the vermivorous C. quercinus, which support the putative hypothesis that the Conus ancestor was vermivorous.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bingmiao Gao
- Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Research and Development of Tropical Medicinal Plants, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Chao Peng
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qin Chen
- School of Agricultural and Forestry Science and Technology, Hainan Radio & TV University, Haikou, China
| | - Junqing Zhang
- Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Research and Development of Tropical Medicinal Plants, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Qiong Shi
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Holding ML, Margres MJ, Rokyta DR, Gibbs HL. Local prey community composition and genetic distance predict venom divergence among populations of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (
Crotalus oreganus
). J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1513-1528. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 06/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L. Holding
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology The Ohio State University Columbus OH USA
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - Mark J. Margres
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - Darin R. Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - H. Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology The Ohio State University Columbus OH USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Pekár S, Petráková L, Šedo O, Korenko S, Zdráhal Z. Trophic niche, capture efficiency and venom profiles of six sympatric ant-eating spider species (Araneae: Zodariidae). Mol Ecol 2018; 27:1053-1064. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petráková
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- Research Group Proteomics, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Korenko
- Department of Agroecology and Biometeorology; Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources; Czech University of Life Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Research Group Proteomics, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gao B, Peng C, Yang J, Yi Y, Zhang J, Shi Q. Cone Snails: A Big Store of Conotoxins for Novel Drug Discovery. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E397. [PMID: 29215605 PMCID: PMC5744117 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine drugs have developed rapidly in recent decades. Cone snails, a group of more than 700 species, have always been one of the focuses for new drug discovery. These venomous snails capture prey using a diverse array of unique bioactive neurotoxins, usually named as conotoxins or conopeptides. These conotoxins have proven to be valuable pharmacological probes and potential drugs due to their high specificity and affinity to ion channels, receptors, and transporters in the nervous systems of target prey and humans. Several research groups, including ours, have examined the venom gland of cone snails using a combination of transcriptomic and proteomic sequencing, and revealed the existence of hundreds of conotoxin transcripts and thousands of conopeptides in each Conus species. Over 2000 nucleotide and 8000 peptide sequences of conotoxins have been published, and the number is still increasing quickly. However, more than 98% of these sequences still lack 3D structural and functional information. With the rapid development of genomics and bioinformatics in recent years, functional predictions and investigations on conotoxins are making great progress in promoting the discovery of novel drugs. For example, ω-MVIIA was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2004 to treat chronic pain, and nine more conotoxins are at various stages of preclinical or clinical evaluation. In short, the genus Conus, the big family of cone snails, has become an important genetic resource for conotoxin identification and drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bingmiao Gao
- Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Research and Development of Tropical Medicinal Plants, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China.
| | - Chao Peng
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen 518083, China.
| | - Jiaan Yang
- Micro Pharmtech, Ltd., Wuhan 430075, China.
| | - Yunhai Yi
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen 518083, China.
- BGI Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518083, China.
| | - Junqing Zhang
- Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Research and Development of Tropical Medicinal Plants, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China.
| | - Qiong Shi
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen 518083, China.
- BGI Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518083, China.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Bose U, Wang T, Zhao M, Motti CA, Hall MR, Cummins SF. Multiomics analysis of the giant triton snail salivary gland, a crown-of-thorns starfish predator. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6000. [PMID: 28729681 PMCID: PMC5519703 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05974-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The giant triton snail (Charonia tritonis) is one of the few natural predators of the adult Crown-of-Thorns starfish (COTS), a corallivore that has been damaging to many reefs in the Indo-Pacific. Charonia species have large salivary glands (SGs) that are suspected to produce either a venom and/or sulphuric acid which can immobilize their prey and neutralize the intrinsic toxic properties of COTS. To date, there is little information on the types of toxins produced by tritons. In this paper, the predatory behaviour of the C. tritonis is described. Then, the C. tritonis SG, which itself is made up of an anterior lobe (AL) and posterior lobe (PL), was analyzed using an integrated transcriptomics and proteomics approach, to identify putative toxin- and feeding-related proteins. A de novo transcriptome database and in silico protein analysis predicts that ~3800 proteins have features consistent with being secreted. A gland-specific proteomics analysis confirmed the presence of numerous SG-AL and SG-PL proteins, including those with similarity to cysteine-rich venom proteins. Sulfuric acid biosynthesis enzymes were identified, specific to the SG-PL. Our analysis of the C. tritonis SG (AL and PL) has provided a deeper insight into the biomolecular toolkit used for predation and feeding by C. tritonis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U Bose
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, Genecology Research Center, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, 4810, Australia
| | - T Wang
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, Genecology Research Center, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558, Australia
| | - M Zhao
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, Genecology Research Center, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558, Australia
| | - C A Motti
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, 4810, Australia
| | - M R Hall
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, 4810, Australia
| | - S F Cummins
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, Genecology Research Center, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Phuong MA, Mahardika GN, Alfaro ME. Dietary breadth is positively correlated with venom complexity in cone snails. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:401. [PMID: 27229931 PMCID: PMC4880860 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2755-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although diet is believed to be a major factor underlying the evolution of venom, few comparative studies examine both venom composition and diet across a radiation of venomous species. Cone snails within the family, Conidae, comprise more than 700 species of carnivorous marine snails that capture their prey by using a cocktail of venomous neurotoxins (conotoxins or conopeptides). Venom composition across species has been previously hypothesized to be shaped by (a) prey taxonomic class (i.e., worms, molluscs, or fish) and (b) dietary breadth. We tested these hypotheses under a comparative phylogenetic framework using ecological data from past studies in conjunction with venom duct transcriptomes sequenced from 12 phylogenetically disparate cone snail species, including 10 vermivores (worm-eating), one molluscivore, and one generalist. RESULTS We discovered 2223 unique conotoxin precursor peptides that encoded 1864 unique mature toxins across all species, >90 % of which are new to this study. In addition, we identified two novel gene superfamilies and 16 novel cysteine frameworks. Each species exhibited unique venom profiles, with venom composition and expression patterns among species dominated by a restricted set of gene superfamilies and mature toxins. In contrast with the dominant paradigm for interpreting Conidae venom evolution, prey taxonomic class did not predict venom composition patterns among species. We also found a significant positive relationship between dietary breadth and measures of conotoxin complexity. CONCLUSIONS The poor performance of prey taxonomic class in predicting venom components suggests that cone snails have either evolved species-specific expression patterns likely as a consequence of the rapid evolution of conotoxin genes, or that traditional means of categorizing prey type (i.e., worms, mollusc, or fish) and conotoxins (i.e., by gene superfamily) do not accurately encapsulate evolutionary dynamics between diet and venom composition. We also show that species with more generalized diets tend to have more complex venoms and utilize a greater number of venom genes for prey capture. Whether this increased gene diversity confers an increased capacity for evolutionary change remains to be tested. Overall, our results corroborate the key role of diet in influencing patterns of venom evolution in cone snails and other venomous radiations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Phuong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Gusti N Mahardika
- Animal Biomedical and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University Bali, Jl Sesetan-Markisa 6, Denpasar, Bali, 80225, Indonesia
| | - Michael E Alfaro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Walker AA, Weirauch C, Fry BG, King GF. Venoms of Heteropteran Insects: A Treasure Trove of Diverse Pharmacological Toolkits. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:43. [PMID: 26907342 PMCID: PMC4773796 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8020043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The piercing-sucking mouthparts of the true bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera: Heteroptera) have allowed diversification from a plant-feeding ancestor into a wide range of trophic strategies that include predation and blood-feeding. Crucial to the success of each of these strategies is the injection of venom. Here we review the current state of knowledge with regard to heteropteran venoms. Predaceous species produce venoms that induce rapid paralysis and liquefaction. These venoms are powerfully insecticidal, and may cause paralysis or death when injected into vertebrates. Disulfide-rich peptides, bioactive phospholipids, small molecules such as N,N-dimethylaniline and 1,2,5-trithiepane, and toxic enzymes such as phospholipase A2, have been reported in predatory venoms. However, the detailed composition and molecular targets of predatory venoms are largely unknown. In contrast, recent research into blood-feeding heteropterans has revealed the structure and function of many protein and non-protein components that facilitate acquisition of blood meals. Blood-feeding venoms lack paralytic or liquefying activity but instead are cocktails of pharmacological modulators that disable the host haemostatic systems simultaneously at multiple points. The multiple ways venom is used by heteropterans suggests that further study will reveal heteropteran venom components with a wide range of bioactivities that may be recruited for use as bioinsecticides, human therapeutics, and pharmacological tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Walker
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Christiane Weirauch
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Prashanth JR, Dutertre S, Jin AH, Lavergne V, Hamilton B, Cardoso FC, Griffin J, Venter DJ, Alewood PF, Lewis RJ. The role of defensive ecological interactions in the evolution of conotoxins. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:598-615. [PMID: 26614983 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Venoms comprise of complex mixtures of peptides evolved for predation and defensive purposes. Remarkably, some carnivorous cone snails can inject two distinct venoms in response to predatory or defensive stimuli, providing a unique opportunity to study separately how different ecological pressures contribute to toxin diversification. Here, we report the extraordinary defensive strategy of the Rhizoconus subgenus of cone snails. The defensive venom from this worm-hunting subgenus is unusually simple, almost exclusively composed of αD-conotoxins instead of the ubiquitous αA-conotoxins found in the more complex defensive venom of mollusc- and fish-hunting cone snails. A similarly compartmentalized venom gland as those observed in the other dietary groups facilitates the deployment of this defensive venom. Transcriptomic analysis of a Conus vexillum venom gland revealed the αD-conotoxins as the major transcripts, with lower amounts of 15 known and four new conotoxin superfamilies also detected with likely roles in prey capture. Our phylogenetic and molecular evolution analysis of the αD-conotoxins from five subgenera of cone snails suggests they evolved episodically as part of a defensive strategy in the Rhizoconus subgenus. Thus, our results demonstrate an important role for defence in the evolution of conotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J R Prashanth
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - S Dutertre
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia.,Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247, Université Montpellier-CNRS, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - A H Jin
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - V Lavergne
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - B Hamilton
- Pathology, Mater Health Services, Raymond Terrace, South Brisbane, Qld, 4101, Australia.,Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - F C Cardoso
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - J Griffin
- ACRF Microscopy Facility, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - D J Venter
- Pathology, Mater Health Services, Raymond Terrace, South Brisbane, Qld, 4101, Australia.,Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld, 4072, Australia.,School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - P F Alewood
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| | - R J Lewis
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Optimized deep-targeted proteotranscriptomic profiling reveals unexplored Conus toxin diversity and novel cysteine frameworks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E3782-91. [PMID: 26150494 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1501334112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cone snails are predatory marine gastropods characterized by a sophisticated venom apparatus responsible for the biosynthesis and delivery of complex mixtures of cysteine-rich toxin peptides. These conotoxins fold into small highly structured frameworks, allowing them to potently and selectively interact with heterologous ion channels and receptors. Approximately 2,000 toxins from an estimated number of >70,000 bioactive peptides have been identified in the genus Conus to date. Here, we describe a high-resolution interrogation of the transcriptomes (available at www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp) and proteomes of the diverse compartments of the Conus episcopatus venom apparatus. Using biochemical and bioinformatic tools, we found the highest number of conopeptides yet discovered in a single Conus specimen, with 3,305 novel precursor toxin sequences classified into 9 known superfamilies (A, I1, I2, M, O1, O2, S, T, Z), and identified 16 new superfamilies showing unique signal peptide signatures. We were also able to depict the largest population of venom peptides containing the pharmacologically active C-C-CC-C-C inhibitor cystine knot and CC-C-C motifs (168 and 44 toxins, respectively), as well as 208 new conotoxins displaying odd numbers of cysteine residues derived from known conotoxin motifs. Importantly, six novel cysteine-rich frameworks were revealed which may have novel pharmacology. Finally, analyses of codon usage bias and RNA-editing processes of the conotoxin transcripts demonstrate a specific conservation of the cysteine skeleton at the nucleic acid level and provide new insights about the origin of sequence hypervariablity in mature toxin regions.
Collapse
|
26
|
Barghi N, Concepcion GP, Olivera BM, Lluisma AO. Comparison of the Venom Peptides and Their Expression in Closely Related Conus Species: Insights into Adaptive Post-speciation Evolution of Conus Exogenomes. Genome Biol Evol 2015; 7:1797-814. [PMID: 26047846 PMCID: PMC4494072 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evv109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Genes that encode products with exogenous targets, which comprise an organism's "exogenome," typically exhibit high rates of evolution. The genes encoding the venom peptides (conotoxins or conopeptides) in Conus sensu lato exemplify this class of genes. Their rapid diversification has been established and is believed to be linked to the high speciation rate in this genus. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie venom peptide diversification and ultimately emergence of new species remain poorly understood. In this study, the sequences and expression levels of conotoxins from several specimens of two closely related worm-hunting species, Conus tribblei and Conus lenavati, were compared through transcriptome analysis. Majority of the identified putative conopeptides were novel, and their diversity, even in each specimen, was remarkably high suggesting a wide range of prey targets for these species. Comparison of the interspecific expression patterns of conopeptides at the superfamily level resulted in the discovery of both conserved as well as species-specific expression patterns, indicating divergence in the regulatory network affecting conotoxin gene expression. Comparison of the transcriptomes of the individual snails revealed that each specimen produces a distinct set of highly expressed conopeptides, reflecting the capability of individual snails to fine-tune the composition of their venoms. These observations reflect the role of sequence divergence and divergence in the control of expression for specific conopeptides in the evolution of the exogenome and hence venom composition in Conus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neda Barghi
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Gisela P Concepcion
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Philippine Genome Center, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
| | | | - Arturo O Lluisma
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Philippine Genome Center, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Barghi N, Concepcion GP, Olivera BM, Lluisma AO. High conopeptide diversity in Conus tribblei revealed through analysis of venom duct transcriptome using two high-throughput sequencing platforms. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2015; 17:81-98. [PMID: 25117477 PMCID: PMC4501261 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-014-9595-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The venom of each species of Conus contains different kinds of pharmacologically active peptides which are mostly unique to that species. Collectively, the ~500-700 species of Conus produce a large number of these peptides, perhaps exceeding 140,000 different types in total. To date, however, only a small fraction of this diversity has been characterized via transcriptome sequencing. In addition, the sampling of this chemical diversity has not been uniform across the different lineages in the genus. In this study, we used high-throughput transcriptome sequencing approach to further investigate the diversity of Conus venom peptides. We chose a species, Conus tribblei, as a representative of a poorly studied clade of Conus. Using the Roche 454 and Illumina platforms, we discovered 136 unique and novel putative conopeptides belonging to 30 known gene superfamilies and 6 new conopeptide groups, the greatest diversity so far observed from a transcriptome. Most of the identified peptides exhibited divergence from the known conopeptides, and some contained cysteine frameworks observed for the first time in cone snails. In addition, several enzymes involved in posttranslational modification of conopeptides and also some proteins involved in efficient delivery of the conopeptides to prey were identified as well. Interestingly, a number of conopeptides highly similar to the conopeptides identified in a phylogenetically distant species, the generalist feeder Conus californicus, were observed. The high diversity of conopeptides and the presence of conopeptides similar to those in C. californicus suggest that C. tribblei may have a broad range of prey preferences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neda Barghi
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Zhao YJ, Zeng Y, Chen L, Dong Y, Wang W. Analysis of transcriptomes of three orb-web spider species reveals gene profiles involved in silk and toxin. INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 21:687-698. [PMID: 24167122 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As an ancient arthropod with a history of 390 million years, spiders evolved numerous morphological forms resulting from adaptation to different environments. The venom and silk of spiders, which have promising commercial applications in agriculture, medicine and engineering fields, are of special interests to researchers. However, little is known about their genomic components, which hinders not only understanding spider biology but also utilizing their valuable genes. Here we report on deep sequenced and de novo assembled transcriptomes of three orb-web spider species, Gasteracantha arcuata, Nasoonaria sinensis and Gasteracantha hasselti which are distributed in tropical forests of south China. With Illumina paired-end RNA-seq technology, 54 871, 101 855 and 75 455 unigenes for the three spider species were obtained, respectively, among which 9 300, 10 001 and 10 494 unique genes are annotated, respectively. From these annotated unigenes, we comprehensively analyzed silk and toxin gene components and structures for the three spider species. Our study provides valuable transcriptome data for three spider species which previously lacked any genetic/genomic data. The results have laid the first fundamental genomic basis for exploiting gene resources from these spiders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Jun Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Peters H, O'Leary BC, Hawkins JP, Carpenter KE, Roberts CM. Conus: first comprehensive conservation red list assessment of a marine gastropod mollusc genus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83353. [PMID: 24376693 PMCID: PMC3871662 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine molluscs represent an estimated 23% of all extant marine taxa, but research into their conservation status has so far failed to reflect this importance, with minimal inclusion on the authoritative Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). We assessed the status of all 632 valid species of the tropical marine gastropod mollusc, Conus (cone snails), using Red List standards and procedures to lay the groundwork for future decadal monitoring, one of the first fully comprehensive global assessments of a marine taxon. Three-quarters (75.6%) of species were not currently considered at risk of extinction owing to their wide distribution and perceived abundance. However, 6.5% were considered threatened with extinction with a further 4.1% near threatened. Data deficiency prevented 13.8% of species from being categorised although they also possess characteristics that signal concern. Where hotspots of endemism occur, most notably in the Eastern Atlantic, 42.9% of the 98 species from that biogeographical region were classified as threatened or near threatened with extinction. All 14 species included in the highest categories of Critically Endangered and Endangered are endemic to either Cape Verde or Senegal, with each of the three Critically Endangered species restricted to single islands in Cape Verde. Threats to all these species are driven by habitat loss and anthropogenic disturbance, in particular from urban pollution, tourism and coastal development. Our findings show that levels of extinction risk to which cone snails are exposed are of a similar magnitude to those seen in many fully assessed terrestrial taxa. The widely held view that marine species are less at risk is not upheld.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Howard Peters
- Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Bethan C O'Leary
- Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Julie P Hawkins
- Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Kent E Carpenter
- International Union for Conservation of Nature, Global Marine Species Assessment, Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, United States Of America
| | - Callum M Roberts
- Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Zhou M, Wang L, Wu Y, Zhu X, Feng Y, Chen Z, Li Y, Sun D, Ren Z, Xu A. Characterizing the evolution and functions of the M-superfamily conotoxins. Toxicon 2013; 76:150-9. [PMID: 24080356 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Conotoxins from cone snails are valuable in physiology research and therapeutic applications. Evolutionary mechanisms of conotoxins have been investigated in several superfamilies, but there is no phylogenetic analysis on M-superfamily conotoxins. In this study, we characterized identical sequences, gene structure, novel cysteine frameworks, functions and evolutionary mechanisms of M-superfamily conotoxins. Identical M-superfamily conotoxins can be found in different Conus species from the analysis of novel 467 M-superfamily conotoxin sequences and other published M-superfamily conotoxins sequences. M-superfamily conotoxin genes consist of two introns and three exons from the results of genome walking. Eighteen cysteine frameworks were identified from the M-superfamily conotoxins, and 10 of the 18 may be generated from framework III. An analysis between diet types and phylogeny of the M-superfamily conotoxins indicate that M-superfamily conotoxins might not evolve in a concerted manner but were subject to birth-and-death evolution. Codon usage analysis shows that position-specific codon conservation is not restricted to cysteines, but also to other conserved residues. By analysing primary structures and physiological functions of M-superfamily conotoxins, we proposed a hypothesis that insertions and deletions, especially insertions in the third cysteine loop, are involved in the creation of new functions and structures of the M-superfamily conotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maojun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, National Engineering Research Center of South China Sea Marine Biotechnology, Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Neves J, Campos A, Osório H, Antunes A, Vasconcelos V. Conopeptides from Cape Verde Conus crotchii. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:2203-15. [PMID: 23783403 PMCID: PMC3721229 DOI: 10.3390/md11062203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine Cone snails of the genus Conus contain complex peptide toxins in their venom. Living in tropical habitats, they usually use the powerful venom for self-defense and prey capture. Here, we study Conus crotchii venom duct using a peptide mass-matching approach. The C. crotchii was collected on the Cape Verde archipelago in the Boa Vista Island. The venom was analyzed using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). About 488 molecular masses between 700 Da and 3000 Da were searched bymatching with known peptide sequences from UniProtKB protein sequence database. Through this method we were able to identify 12 conopeptides. For validation we considered the error between the experimental molecular mass (monoisotopic) and the calculated mass of less than 0.5 Da. All conopeptides detected belong to the A-, O1-, O2-, O3-, T- and D-superfamilies, which can block Ca²⁺ channels, inhibit K⁺ channels and act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Only a few of the detected peptides have a 100% UniProtKB database similarity, suggesting that several of them could be newly discovered marine drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Neves
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mails: (J.N.); (A.C.); (A.A.)
- DECM—Department of Engineering and Sea Science, Cape Verde University, Mindelo CP 163, Cape Verde
| | - Alexandre Campos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mails: (J.N.); (A.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Hugo Osório
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, IPATIMUP, Porto 4200-465, Portugal; E-Mail:
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto 4200-319, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mails: (J.N.); (A.C.); (A.A.)
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mails: (J.N.); (A.C.); (A.A.)
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +351-22-340-1817; Fax: +351-22-339-0608
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Armishaw CJ, Banerjee J, Ganno ML, Reilley KJ, Eans SO, Mizrachi E, Gyanda R, Hoot MR, Houghten RA, McLaughlin JP. Discovery of novel antinociceptive α-conotoxin analogues from the direct in vivo screening of a synthetic mixture-based combinatorial library. ACS COMBINATORIAL SCIENCE 2013; 15:153-61. [PMID: 23414173 DOI: 10.1021/co300152x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Marine cone snail venoms consist of large, naturally occurring combinatorial libraries of disulfide-constrained peptide neurotoxins known as conotoxins, which have profound potential in the development of analgesics. In this study, we report a synthetic combinatorial strategy that probes the hypervariable regions of conotoxin frameworks to discover novel analgesic agents by utilizing high diversity mixture-based positional-scanning synthetic combinatorial libraries (PS-SCLs). We hypothesized that the direct in vivo testing of these mixture-based combinatorial library samples during the discovery phase would facilitate the identification of novel individual compounds with desirable antinociceptive profiles while simultaneously eliminating many compounds with poor activity or liabilities of locomotion and respiration. A PS-SCL was designed based on the α-conotoxin RgIA-ΔR n-loop region and consisted of 10,648 compounds systematically arranged into 66 mixture samples. Mixtures were directly screened in vivo using the mouse 55 °C warm-water tail-withdrawal assay, which allowed deconvolution of amino acid residues at each position that confer antinociceptive activity. A second generation library of 36 individual α-conotoxin analogues was synthesized using systematic combinations of amino acids identified from PS-SCL deconvolution and further screened for antinociceptive activity. Six individual analogues exhibited comparable antinociceptive activity to that of the recognized analgesic α-conotoxin RgIA-ΔR, and were selected for further examination of antinociceptive, respiratory, and locomotor effects. Three lead compounds were identified that produced dose-dependent antinociception without significant respiratory depression or decreased locomotor activity. Our results represent a unique approach for rapidly developing novel lead α-conotoxin analogues as low-liability analgesics with promising therapeutic potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Armishaw
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Jayati Banerjee
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Michelle L. Ganno
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Kate J. Reilley
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Shainnel O. Eans
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Elisa Mizrachi
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Reena Gyanda
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Michelle R. Hoot
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Richard A. Houghten
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| | - Jay P. McLaughlin
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, 11350 SW Village Pkwy, Port St. Lucie, Florida
34987, United States
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vonk FJ, Harrison RA, Fry BG. Complex cocktails: the evolutionary novelty of venoms. Trends Ecol Evol 2012; 28:219-29. [PMID: 23219381 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 593] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Venoms have evolved on numerous occasions throughout the animal kingdom. These 'biochemical weapon systems' typically function to facilitate, or protect the producing animal from, predation. Most venomous animals remain unstudied despite venoms providing model systems for investigating predator-prey interactions, molecular evolution, functional convergence, and novel targets for pharmaceutical discovery. Through advances in 'omic' technologies, venom composition data have recently become available for several venomous lineages, revealing considerable complexity in the processes responsible for generating the genetic and functional diversity observed in many venoms. Here, we review these recent advances and highlight the ecological and evolutionary novelty of venom systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas R Casewell
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution Group, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Liu Z, Li H, Liu N, Wu C, Jiang J, Yue J, Jing Y, Dai Q. Diversity and evolution of conotoxins in Conus virgo, Conus eburneus, Conus imperialis and Conus marmoreus from the South China Sea. Toxicon 2012; 60:982-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
35
|
Lluisma AO, Milash BA, Moore B, Olivera BM, Bandyopadhyay PK. Novel venom peptides from the cone snail Conus pulicarius discovered through next-generation sequencing of its venom duct transcriptome. Mar Genomics 2012; 5:43-51. [PMID: 22325721 DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The venom peptides (i.e., conotoxins or conopeptides) that species in the genus Conus collectively produce are remarkably diverse, estimated to be around 50,000 to 140,000, but the pace of discovery and characterization of these peptides have been rather slow. To date, only a minor fraction have been identified and studied. However, the advent of next-generation DNA sequencing technologies has opened up opportunities for expediting the exploration of this diversity. The whole transcriptome of a venom duct from the vermivorous marine snail C. pulicarius was sequenced using the 454 sequencing platform. Analysis of the data set resulted in the identification of over eighty unique putative conopeptide sequences, the highest number discovered so far from a Conus venom duct transcriptome. More importantly, majority of the sequences were potentially novel, many with unexpected structural features, hinting at the vastness of the diversity of Conus venom peptides that remains to be explored. The sequences represented at least 14 major superfamilies/types (disulfide- and non-disulfide-rich), indicating the structural and functional diversity of conotoxins in the venom of C. pulicarius. In addition, the contryphans were surprisingly more diverse than what is currently known. Comparative analysis of the O-superfamily sequences also revealed insights into the complexity of the processes that drive the evolution and diversification of conotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arturo O Lluisma
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Elliger CA, Richmond TA, Lebaric ZN, Pierce NT, Sweedler JV, Gilly WF. Diversity of conotoxin types from Conus californicus reflects a diversity of prey types and a novel evolutionary history. Toxicon 2010; 57:311-22. [PMID: 21172372 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Most species within the genus Conus are considered to be specialists in their consumption of prey, typically feeding on molluscs, vermiform invertebrates or fish, and employ peptide toxins to immobilize prey. Conus californicus Hinds 1844 atypically utilizes a wide range of food sources from all three groups. Using DNA- and protein-based methods, we analyzed the molecular diversity of C. californicus toxins and detected a correspondingly large number of conotoxin types. We identified cDNAs corresponding to seven known cysteine-frameworks containing over 40 individual inferred peptides. Additionally, we found a new framework (22) with six predicted peptide examples, along with two forms of a new peptide type of unusual length. Analysis of leader sequences allowed assignment to known superfamilies in only half of the cases, and several of these showed a framework that was not in congruence with the identified superfamily. Mass spectrometric examination of chromatographic fractions from whole venom served to identify peptides corresponding to a number of cDNAs, in several cases differing in their degree of posttranslational modification. This suggests differential or incomplete biochemical processing of these peptides. In general, it is difficult to fit conotoxins from C. californicus into established toxin classification schemes. We hypothesize that the novel structural modifications of individual peptides and their encoding genes reflect evolutionary adaptation to prey species of an unusually wide range as well as the large phylogenetic distance between C. californicus and Indo-Pacific species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C A Elliger
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, 120 Oceanview Blvd., Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Zobel-Thropp PA, Bodner MR, Binford GJ. Comparative analyses of venoms from American and African Sicarius spiders that differ in sphingomyelinase D activity. Toxicon 2010; 55:1274-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2009] [Revised: 01/14/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
38
|
Salisbury SM, Martin GG, Kier WM, Schulz JR. Venom kinematics during prey capture in Conus: the biomechanics of a rapid injection system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 213:673-82. [PMID: 20154182 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.035550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Cone snails use an extensile, tubular proboscis as a conduit to deliver a potent cocktail of bioactive venom peptides into their prey. Previous studies have focused mainly on understanding the venom's role in prey capture but successful prey capture requires both rapid physiological and biomechanical mechanisms. Conus catus, a fish-hunting species, uses a high-speed hydraulic mechanism to inject its hollow, spear-like radular tooth into prey. We take an integrated approach to investigating the biomechanics of this process by coupling kinematic studies with morphological analyses. Taking advantage of the opaque venom and translucent proboscis of a mollusc-hunting juvenile cone snail, Conus pennaceus, we have determined that a high-speed prey capture mechanism is not unique to cone species that hunt fish prey. Two morphological structures were found to play crucial roles in this process. A constriction of the lumen near the tip of the proboscis, composed of tall epithelial cells densely packed with microfilaments, impedes forward movement of the radular tooth prior to its propulsion. Proximal to the constriction, a muscular sphincter was found to regulate venom flow and pressurization in the proboscis. In C. pennaceus, the rapid appearance and flushing of venom within the proboscis during prey capture suggests a mechanism involving the delivery of a discrete quantity of venom. The interplay between these elements provides a unique and effective biomechanical injection system for the fast-acting cone snail venom peptides.
Collapse
|
39
|
Evolution of Conus peptide toxins: analysis of Conus californicus Reeve, 1844. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2010; 56:1-12. [PMID: 20363338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2008] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Conus species are characterized by their hyperdiverse toxins, encoded by a few gene superfamilies. Our phylogenies of the genus, based on mitochondrial genes, confirm previous results that C. californicus is highly divergent from all other species. Genetic and biochemical analysis of their venom peptides comprise the fifteen most abundant conopeptides and over 50 mature cDNA transcripts from the venom duct. Although C. californicus venom retains many of the general properties of other Conus species, they share only half of the toxin gene superfamilies found in other Conus species. Thus, in these two lineages, approximately half of the rapidly diversifying gene superfamilies originated after an early Tertiary split. Such results demonstrate that, unlike endogenously acting gene families, these genes are likely to be significantly more restricted in their phylogenetic distribution. In concordance with the evolutionary distance of C. californicus from other species, there are aspects of prey-capture behavior and prey preferences of this species that diverges significantly from all other Conus.
Collapse
|
40
|
Correlating molecular phylogeny with venom apparatus occurrence in Panamic auger snails (Terebridae). PLoS One 2009; 4:e7667. [PMID: 19890382 PMCID: PMC2766622 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Central to the discovery of neuroactive compounds produced by predatory marine snails of the superfamily Conoidea (cone snails, terebrids, and turrids) is identifying those species with a venom apparatus. Previous analyses of western Pacific terebrid specimens has shown that some Terebridae groups have secondarily lost their venom apparatus. In order to efficiently characterize terebrid toxins, it is essential to devise a key for identifying which species have a venom apparatus. The findings presented here integrate molecular phylogeny and the evolution of character traits to infer the presence or absence of the venom apparatus in the Terebridae. Using a combined dataset of 156 western and 33 eastern Pacific terebrid samples, a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on analyses of 16S, COI and 12S mitochondrial genes. The 33 eastern Pacific specimens analyzed represent four different species: Acus strigatus, Terebra argyosia, T. ornata, and T. cf. formosa. Anatomical analysis was congruent with molecular characters, confirming that species included in the clade Acus do not have a venom apparatus, while those in the clade Terebra do. Discovery of the association between terebrid molecular phylogeny and the occurrence of a venom apparatus provides a useful tool for effectively identifying the terebrid lineages that may be investigated for novel pharmacological active neurotoxins, enhancing conservation of this important resource, while providing supplementary information towards understanding terebrid evolutionary diversification.
Collapse
|
41
|
|
42
|
Peng C, Han Y, Sanders T, Chew G, Liu J, Hawrot E, Chi C, Wang C. alpha4/7-conotoxin Lp1.1 is a novel antagonist of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Peptides 2008; 29:1700-7. [PMID: 18588930 PMCID: PMC4826758 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2008.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2008] [Revised: 05/26/2008] [Accepted: 05/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cone snails comprise approximately 700 species of venomous molluscs which have evolved the ability to generate multiple toxins with varied and exquisite selectivity. alpha-Conotoxin is a powerful tool for defining the composition and function of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors which play a crucial role in excitatory neurotransmission and are important targets for drugs and insecticides. An alpha4/7 conotoxin, Lp1.1, originally identified by cDNA and genomic DNA cloning from Conus leopardus, was found devoid of the highly conserved Pro residue in the first intercysteine loop. To further study this toxin, alpha-Lp1.1 was chemically synthesized and refolded into its globular disulfide isomer. The synthetic Lp1.1 induced seizure and paralysis on freshwater goldfish and selectively reversibly inhibited ACh-evoked currents in Xenopus oocytes expressing rat alpha3beta2 and alpha6alpha3beta2 nAChRs. Comparing the distinct primary structure with other functionally related alpha-conotoxins could indicate structural features in Lp1.1 that may be associated with its unique receptor recognition profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Can Peng
- Institute of Protein Research, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yuhong Han
- Institute of Protein Research, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Tanya Sanders
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology, Brown Medical School, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Geoffrey Chew
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology, Brown Medical School, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology, Brown Medical School, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Edward Hawrot
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology, Brown Medical School, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Chengwu Chi
- Institute of Protein Research, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Chunguang Wang
- Institute of Protein Research, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
- Corresponding author and address: Chunguang Wang, Institute of Protein Research, Tongji University 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China Tel.: +86-21-65984347 Fax: +86-21-65988403
| |
Collapse
|