Molecular analysis of the human serum amyloid A (SAA) gene family

Serum amyloid A - a review

Serum amyloid A (SAA) proteins were isolated and named over 50 years ago. They are small (104 amino acids) and have a striking relationship to the acute phase response with serum levels rising as much as 1000-fold in 24 hours. SAA proteins are encoded in a family of closely-related genes and have been remarkably conserved throughout vertebrate evolution. Amino-terminal fragments of SAA can form highly organized, insoluble fibrils that accumulate in “secondary” amyloid disease. Despite their evolutionary preservation and dynamic synthesis pattern SAA proteins have lacked well-defined physiologic roles. However, considering an array of many, often unrelated, reports now permits a more coordinated perspective. Protein studies have elucidated basic SAA structure and fibril formation. Appreciating SAA’s lipophilicity helps relate it to lipid transport and metabolism as well as atherosclerosis. SAA’s function as a cytokine-like protein has become recognized in cell-cell communication as well as feedback in inflammatory, immunologic, neoplastic and protective pathways. SAA likely has a critical role in control and possibly propagation of the primordial acute phase response. Appreciating the many cellular and molecular interactions for SAA suggests possibilities for improved understanding of pathophysiology as well as treatment and disease prevention.

Serum amyloid A1 (SAA1) protein in human colostrum

Proteins of the serum amyloid A (SAA) family have been remarkably conserved in evolution. Their biologic function(s) are not fully defined but they are likely to be a part of primordial host defense. We have detected a ∼ 12‐kDa protein reacting with antibodies against serum amyloid A (SAA) in human colostrum by western blotting. Mass spectrometry identified the reactive species as SAA1, previously identified as a prominent member of the acute‐phase response in serum. Our finding SAA1 in human colostrum contrasts with bovine, caprine and ovine colostrum where a species corresponding to putative SAA3 is uniformly present. SAA1 protein in human colostrum presumably contributes to neonatal protection.

The molecular basis of reactive amyloidosis

Reactive amyloidosis is a disease occurring in patients suffering from chronic infections, inflammation, and certain malignant conditions that are characterized by a considerable elevation of the acute phase reactant serum amyloid A (SAA). It is defined by the presence of extracellular deposits of fibrillar material containing amyloid A (AA) as its main component. AA is an 8.5-kd protein structurally identical to the NH2-terminal of the acute phase reactant SAA. SAA consists of a group of evolutionally conserved amphipathic proteins, encoded by a large number of genes and produced abundantly during inflammation, all suggesting an important role, probably of a neutralizing (anti-inflammatory) nature. An analysis of various aspects of SAA provides no clues to the mechanism of amyloid production, its occurrence in only selected individuals, and its preferential relationship to one isotype of SAA. Until more data is available, the present view on AA amyloidogenesis remains hypothetical.

Serum amyloid A (SAA): an acute phase protein and apolipoprotein

Serum amyloid A (SAA) proteins comprise a family of apolipoproteins coded for by at least three genes with allelic variation and a high degree of homology between species. The synthesis of certain members of the family is greatly increased in inflammation. However, SAA is not often used as an acute-phase marker despite being at least as sensitive as C-reactive protein. SAA proteins can be considered as apolipoproteins since they associate with plasma lipoproteins mainly within the high density range, perhaps through amphipathic alpha-helical structure. It is not known why certain subjects expressing SAA develop secondary systemic amyloidosis. There is still no specific function attributed to SAA; however, a popular hypothesis suggests that SAA may modulate metabolism of high density lipoproteins (HDL). This may impede the protective function of HDL against the development of atherosclerosis. The potential significance of the association between SAA and lipoproteins needs further evaluation.

The human serum amyloid A locus SAA4 is a pseudogene

We have isolated the human genomic DNA clone GSAA4 from a size-selected Bgl II library by hybridization to a probe derived from the human serum amyloid A gene GSAA1. Sequencing the 5' end of this clone revealed a region similar to the first exon of gene GSAA1 but with significant nucleotide differences and mutation of the 3' splice site. The restriction map of the GSAA4 clone corresponds to that for the locus "SAA4" recently reported by others. Sequence and hybridization details indicate that the locus in clone GSAA4 is a member of the human serum amyloid A gene family and contains a pseudogene. Isolating GSAA4 completes the collection of clones needed to account for all bands found in blot hybridizations of human DNA using serum amyloid A gene probes.

Exclusion of linkage between familial Mediterranean fever and the human serum amyloid A (SAA) gene cluster

We studied the relationship between the autosomal recessive trait familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) and the serum amyloid A (SAA) genes by comparing alleles of a highly polymorphic dinucleotide repeat and a conventional restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in the SAA gene cluster in Israeli FMF kindreds. By haplotype analysis, our data indicate a minimum crossover frequency of 22% between the SAA gene marker and FMF. By conventional linkage analysis this eliminates a minimum of 10.4 cM including and surrounding the SAA gene cluster as the site of the FMF mutation although SAA proteins are prominent physiologic markers of the acute attacks.

Serum amyloid A isoforms in inflammation

Serum amyloid A protein (SAA) was extracted from serum using hydrophobic interaction chromatography and four or six isoforms were separated by isoelectric-focusing. These represented three pairs of isoforms, each with and without an N-terminal arginine. SAA1 (pI 6.1), SAA1 des-arg (pI 5.9), SAA2 alpha (pI 6.9) and SAA2 alpha des-arg (pI 6.6) were found to be present in all individuals from Europe and the USA. A minority of these individuals (11 of 56) expressed SAA2 beta (pI 7.1) and SAA2 beta des-arg (pI 6.8). Serum from patients in Papua New Guinea and Malawi both showed a much higher frequency of SAA2 beta. There was no indication of altered isoforms in regions with high incidence of reactive AA amyloidosis. In sequential serum samples, concentrations of des-arg isoforms were found to reach a maximum 0-24 h later than isoforms with an arginine. Concentrations of the isoform SAA1 decreased faster in five of six patients (16 +/- 7.5 h to decrease 50%) than SAA1 des-arg (22 +/- 11 h to decrease 50%). Variations in the handling of N-terminal arginine may be important for the formation-susceptibility of amyloid deposits.

Highly polymorphic domains of the human serum amyloid A (SAA) gene GSAA1

The DNA of the human serum amyloid A (SAA) gene GSAA1 contains several repetitive regions within its introns. We have studied length variations at one such region in the 2nd intron by selective amplification using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and defined oligonucleotide primers. The lengths of the repetitive regions frequently differ between individual chromosomes and can be transmitted as Mendelian markers, making them useful for genetic linkage analysis.

Heterogeneity of human serum amyloid A protein. Five different variants from one individual demonstrated by cDNA sequence analysis

Serum amyloid A (SAA), a chemically polymorphic protein, is the most sensitive marker protein of the acute phase and the precursor of reactive amyloidosis, which is characterized by deposits of amyloid A protein (AA). We investigated the variability of the SAA gene family in one individual by sequencing 11 SAA-specific clones from an acute-phase-liver cDNA library. At least five different SAA variants were deduced from six different cDNAs. The 3' untranslated gene segments fall into two groups, based on nucleotide sequence and variability in length. Various nucleotide and amino acid substitutions were found predominantly in the 3' portion. Some of these substitutions are unique and increase the number of SAA variants in one individual to at least five. Moreover, genomic DNA of four individuals was examined by analysis of restriction-fragment length polymorphism. Besides two conserved strongly labelled bands, additional polymorphic bands were observed, indicating isotypic and/or allotypic SAA variations. Finally, three different mRNA species were detected by Northern-blot analysis, a finding that might be of relevance for the stability of SAA transcripts.

The human serum amyloid A (SAA)-encoding gene GSAA1: nucleotide sequence and possible autocrine-collagenase-inducer function

We have determined the genomic sequence of the human GSAA1 gene, a member of the family of acute-phase human serum amyloid A (SAA)-encoding genes. This sequence predicts a mature protein of 104 amino acids (aa), several of which differ from residues usually conserved in the sequence of SAA proteins isolated from serum. Despite coding differences, however, the four-exon structure of GSAA1 resembles that of other SAA genes in humans and mice. The N-terminal 25 aa of the mature GSAA1 protein are virtually identical to those of an 'SAA-like' autocrine collagenase inducer produced by rabbit synovial fibroblasts; the latter also differ from the corresponding aa found in SAA in serum. We propose that GSAA1 is the human gene coding for a protein closely related to the SAA, but which is adapted to this important autocrine cytokine function.