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Moss SMA, Zhou Y, Butelli E, Waite CN, Yeh SM, Cordiner SB, Harris NN, Copsey L, Schwinn KE, Davies KM, Hudson A, Martin C, Albert NW. Painted flowers: Eluta generates pigment patterning in Antirrhinum. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 243:738-752. [PMID: 38822654 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
In the early 1900s, Erwin Baur established Antirrhinum majus as a model system, identifying and characterising numerous flower colour variants. This included Picturatum/Eluta, which restricts the accumulation of magenta anthocyanin pigments, forming bullseye markings on the flower face. We identified the gene underlying the Eluta locus by transposon-tagging, using an Antirrhinum line that spontaneously lost the nonsuppressive el phenotype. A candidate MYB repressor gene at this locus contained a CACTA transposable element. We subsequently identified plants where this element excised, reverting to a suppressive Eluta phenotype. El alleles inhibit expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, confirming it to be a regulatory locus. The modes of action of Eluta were investigated by generating stable transgenic tobacco lines, biolistic transformation of Antirrhinum petals and promoter activation/repression assays. Eluta competes with MYB activators for promoter cis-elements, and also by titrating essential cofactors (bHLH proteins) to reduce transcription of target genes. Eluta restricts the pigmentation established by the R2R3-MYB factors, Rosea and Venosa, with the greatest repression on those parts of the petals where Eluta is most highly expressed. Baur questioned the origin of heredity units determining flower colour variation in cultivated A. majus. Our findings support introgression from wild species into cultivated varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M A Moss
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - Yanfei Zhou
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | | | - Chethi N Waite
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - Shin-Mei Yeh
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Auckland, 1025, New Zealand
| | - Sarah B Cordiner
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - Nilangani N Harris
- The New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | | | - Kathy E Schwinn
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - Kevin M Davies
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | | | | | - Nick W Albert
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
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Durán-Castillo M, Hudson A, Wilson Y, Field DL, Twyford AD. A phylogeny of Antirrhinum reveals parallel evolution of alpine morphology. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 233:1426-1439. [PMID: 34170548 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Parallel evolution of similar morphologies in closely related lineages provides insight into the repeatability and predictability of evolution. In the genus Antirrhinum (snapdragons), as in other plants, a suite of morphological characters are associated with adaptation to alpine environments. We tested for parallel trait evolution in Antirrhinum by investigating phylogenetic relationships using restriction-site associated DNA (RAD) sequencing. We then associated phenotypic information to our phylogeny to reconstruct the patterns of morphological evolution and related this to evidence for hybridisation between emergent lineages. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the alpine character syndrome is present in multiple groups, suggesting that Antirrhinum has repeatedly colonised alpine habitats. Dispersal to novel environments happened in the presence of intraspecific and interspecific gene flow. We found support for a model of parallel evolution in Antirrhinum. Hybridisation in natural populations, and a complex genetic architecture underlying the alpine morphology syndrome, support an important role of natural selection in maintaining species divergence in the face of gene flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Durán-Castillo
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Andrew Hudson
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Yvette Wilson
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - David L Field
- School of Science, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, 6027, Australia
| | - Alex D Twyford
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, UK
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Otero A, Fernández-Mazuecos M, Vargas P. Evolution in the Model Genus Antirrhinum Based on Phylogenomics of Topotypic Material. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:631178. [PMID: 33643359 PMCID: PMC7907437 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.631178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Researchers in phylogenetic systematics typically choose a few individual representatives of every species for sequencing based on convenience (neighboring populations, herbarium specimens, samples provided by experts, garden plants). However, few studies are based on original material, type material or topotypic material (living specimens from the locality where the type material was collected). The use of type or topotypic material in phylogenetic studies is paramount particularly when taxonomy is complex, such as that of Antirrhinum (Plantaginaceae). In this paper, we used topotypic materials of Antirrhinum at the species level (34 species proposed by previous authors), 87 specimens representing the species distributions and >50,000 informative nucleotide characters (from ∼4,000 loci) generated by the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) technique: (i) to test two explicit taxonomic hypotheses widely followed by local taxonomic treatments; (ii) to robustly estimate phylogenetic relationships; (iii) to investigate the evolution of key morphological characters and biogeographic centers of differentiation. Two GBS phylogenies based on two datasets (87 localities and 34 topotypic specimens) revealed that: (1) Sutton's (1988) taxonomic account is the most congruent with phylogenetic results, whereas division of Antirrhinum into three major clades disagrees with Rothmaler's (1956) infrageneric classification; (2) monophyly of populations currently included in the same species is primarily supported; (3) the historically recognized Antirrhinum majus group is not monophyletic; (4) sister-group relationships are robust for eight species pairs; (5) the evolutionary radiation of 26 species since the Pliocene is underpinned given a high rate of diversification (0.54 spp. Myr-1); (6) a geographic pattern of speciation is reconstructed, with northern Iberia as the center of early diversification followed by more recent speciation in southeastern Iberia; and (7) multiple acquisitions of key taxonomic characters in the course of Antirrhinum diversification are strongly supported, with no evidence of hybridization between major clades. Our results also suggest incipient speciation in some geographic areas and point to future avenues of research in evolution and systematics of Antirrhinum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Otero
- Real Jardín Botánico (RJB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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Tan Y, Barnbrook M, Wilson Y, Molnár A, Bukys A, Hudson A. Shared Mutations in a Novel Glutaredoxin Repressor of Multicellular Trichome Fate Underlie Parallel Evolution of Antirrhinum Species. Curr Biol 2020; 30:1357-1366.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Fernández-Mazuecos M, Blanco-Pastor JL, Juan A, Carnicero P, Forrest A, Alarcón M, Vargas P, Glover BJ. Macroevolutionary dynamics of nectar spurs, a key evolutionary innovation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 222:1123-1138. [PMID: 30570752 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Floral nectar spurs are widely considered a key innovation promoting diversification in angiosperms by means of pollinator shifts. We investigated the macroevolutionary dynamics of nectar spurs in the tribe Antirrhineae (Plantaginaceae), which contains 29 genera and 300-400 species (70-80% spurred). The effect of nectar spurs on diversification was tested, with special focus on Linaria, the genus with the highest number of species. We generated the most comprehensive phylogeny of Antirrhineae to date and reconstructed the evolution of nectar spurs. Diversification rate heterogeneity was investigated using trait-dependent and trait-independent methods, and accounting for taxonomic uncertainty. The association between changes in spur length and speciation was examined within Linaria using model testing and ancestral state reconstructions. We inferred four independent acquisitions of nectar spurs. Diversification analyses revealed that nectar spurs are loosely associated with increased diversification rates. Detected rate shifts were delayed by 5-15 Myr with respect to the acquisition of the trait. Active evolution of spur length, fitting a speciational model, was inferred in Linaria, which is consistent with a scenario of pollinator shifts driving diversification. Nectar spurs played a role in diversification of the Antirrhineae, but diversification dynamics can only be fully explained by the complex interaction of multiple biotic and abiotic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Fernández-Mazuecos
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UK
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Real Jardín Botánico (RJB-CSIC), Plaza de Murillo 2, 28014, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Luis Blanco-Pastor
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Real Jardín Botánico (RJB-CSIC), Plaza de Murillo 2, 28014, Madrid, Spain
- INRA, Centre Nouvelle-Aquitaine-Poitiers, UR4 (URP3F), 86600, Lusignan, France
| | - Ana Juan
- Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales y Recursos Naturales (dCARN) & Instituto de la Biodiversidad (CIBIO), Universidad de Alicante, PO Box 99, 03080, Alicante, Spain
| | - Pau Carnicero
- Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Alan Forrest
- Centre for Middle Eastern Plants, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20a Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, UK
| | - Marisa Alarcón
- Institut Botànic de Barcelona (IBB-CSIC-ICUB), Passeig del Migdia s/n, Parc de Montjuïc, 08038, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pablo Vargas
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Real Jardín Botánico (RJB-CSIC), Plaza de Murillo 2, 28014, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beverley J Glover
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UK
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Weiss J, Mühlemann JK, Ruiz-Hernández V, Dudareva N, Egea-Cortines M. Phenotypic Space and Variation of Floral Scent Profiles during Late Flower Development in Antirrhinum. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1903. [PMID: 28066463 PMCID: PMC5174079 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The genus Antirrhinum comprises about 28 species with a center of origin in the Iberian Peninsula. They show an important diversity of growing niches. We have performed a comprehensive analysis of scent profiles in eight wild species, Antirrhinum linkianum, A. tortuosum, A. cirrigherum, A. latifolium, A. meonanthum, A. braun-blanquetii, A. barrelieri, and A. graniticum. We used also two laboratory inbred lines A. majus, 165E and Sippe50. We identified 63 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) belonging to phenylpropanoids, benzenoids, mono- and sesquiterpenes, nitrogen-containing compounds, and aliphatic alcohols previously described in plants. Twenty-four VOCs were produced at levels higher than 2% of total VOC emission, while other VOCs were emitted in trace amounts. The absolute scent emission varied during flower maturation and species. The lowest emitting was A. meonanthum while A. tortuosum had the largest emissions. Species were clustered according to their scent profiles and the resulting dendrogram matched the current species phylogeny. However, two accessions, A. majus Sippe 50 and A. braun-blanquetii, showed development-specific changes in their VOC composition, suggesting a precise control and fine tuning of scent profiles. Cluster analysis of the different scent components failed to identify a specific synthesis pathway, indicating a key role of scent profiles as blends. There is considerable degree of chemodiversity in scent profiles in Antirrhinum. The specific developmental stage plays an important role in scent quantitative emissions. The relative robustness of the bouquets could be an adaptation to local pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Weiss
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, Universidad Politécnica de CartagenaCartagena, Spain
| | | | - Victoria Ruiz-Hernández
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, Universidad Politécnica de CartagenaCartagena, Spain
| | - Natalia Dudareva
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West LafayetteIN, USA
| | - Marcos Egea-Cortines
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, Universidad Politécnica de CartagenaCartagena, Spain
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Liberal IM, Burrus M, Suchet C, Thébaud C, Vargas P. The evolutionary history of Antirrhinum in the Pyrenees inferred from phylogeographic analyses. BMC Evol Biol 2014; 14:146. [PMID: 24970688 PMCID: PMC4099501 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-14-146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The origin and colonisation history after the Quaternary ice ages remain largely unresolved for many plant lineages, mainly owing to a lack of fine-scale studies. Here, we present a molecular phylogeny and a phylogeographic analysis of Antirrhinum, an important model system in plant biology, in the Pyrenees range. Our goal was to reconstruct the evolutionary and colonisation history of four taxa endemic to this region (A. majus subsp. majus, A. majus. subsp. striatum, A. molle, and A. sempervirens) by using a dense sampling strategy, with a total of 452 individuals from 99 populations whose collective distribution spans nearly the entirety of the Pyrenees and adjacent mountains. RESULTS Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses of the sequences of two plastid (trnS-trnG and trnK-matK) regions revealed the following: (i) historical relationship between the Pyrenees and Iberia (but not with the Alps); (ii) the long persistence of populations in the Pyrenees, at least since the Late Pleistocene; (iii) three different colonisation histories for populations from the Western, Central, and Eastern Pyrenees; (iv) the deep phylogeographic separation of the eastern and western populations; and (v) the colonisation of southern France from the Eastern Pyrenees. CONCLUSIONS The present study underlines the enormous influence of the glacial history of the mountain ranges on the current configuration of intra- and inter-specific genetic diversity in Antirrhinum, as well as the importance of periglacial areas for the survival of species during glacial periods of the Quaternary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel M Liberal
- Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid (CSIC), Plaza de Murillo 2, Madrid E-28014, Spain
| | - Monique Burrus
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique (EDB), UMR5174, CNRS - Université de Toulouse (UPS)- ENFA, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse, Cedex 9 31062, France
| | - Claire Suchet
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique (EDB), UMR5174, CNRS - Université de Toulouse (UPS)- ENFA, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse, Cedex 9 31062, France
| | - Christophe Thébaud
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique (EDB), UMR5174, CNRS - Université de Toulouse (UPS)- ENFA, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse, Cedex 9 31062, France
| | - Pablo Vargas
- Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid (CSIC), Plaza de Murillo 2, Madrid E-28014, Spain
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Sobel JM, Streisfeld MA. Flower color as a model system for studies of plant evo-devo. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:321. [PMID: 23970892 PMCID: PMC3748380 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Even though pigmentation traits have had substantial impacts on the field of animal evolutionary developmental biology, they have played only relatively minor roles in plant evo-devo. This is surprising given the often direct connection between flower color and fitness variation mediated through the effects of pollinators. At the same time, ecological and evolutionary genetic studies have utilized the molecular resources available for the anthocyanin pathway to generate several examples of the molecular basis of putatively adaptive transitions in flower color. Despite this opportunity to synthesize experimental approaches in ecology, evolution, and developmental biology, the investigation of many fundamental questions in evo-devo using this powerful model is only at its earliest stages. For example, a long-standing question is whether predictable genetic changes accompany the repeated evolution of a trait. Due to the conserved nature of the biochemical and regulatory control of anthocyanin biosynthesis, it has become possible to determine whether, and under what circumstances, different types of mutations responsible for flower color variation are preferentially targeted by natural selection. In addition, because plants use anthocyanin and related compounds in vegetative tissue for other important physiological functions, the identification of naturally occurring transitions from unpigmented to pigmented flowers provides the opportunity to examine the mechanisms by which regulatory networks are co-opted into new developmental domains. Here, we review what is known about the ecological and molecular basis of anthocyanic flower color transitions in natural systems, focusing on the evolutionary and developmental features involved. In doing so, we provide suggestions for future work on this trait and suggest that there is still much to be learned from the evolutionary development of flower color transitions in nature.
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Whitney HM, Milne G, Rands SA, Vignolini S, Martin C, Glover BJ. The influence of pigmentation patterning on bumblebee foraging from flowers of Antirrhinum majus. Naturwissenschaften 2013; 100:249-56. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-013-1020-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Costa MMR, Yang S, Critchley J, Feng X, Wilson Y, Langlade N, Copsey L, Hudson A. The genetic basis for natural variation in heteroblasty in Antirrhinum. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 196:1251-1259. [PMID: 23025531 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04347.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/18/2012] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Heteroblasty refers to the changes in leaf shape and size (allometry) along stems. Although evolutionary changes involving heteroblasty might contribute to leaf diversity, little is known of the extent to which heteroblasty differs between species or how it might relate to other aspects of allometry or other developmental transitions. Here, we develop a computational model that can quantify differences in leaf allometry between Antirrhinum (snapdragon) species, including variation in heteroblasty. It allows the underlying genes to be mapped in inter-species hybrids, and their effects to be studied in similar genetic backgrounds. Heteroblasty correlates with overall variation in leaf allometry, so species with smaller, rounder leaves produce their largest leaves earlier in development. This involves genes that affect both characters together and is exaggerated by additional genes with multiplicative effects on leaf size. A further heteroblasty gene also alters leaf spacing, but none affect other developmental transitions, including flowering. We suggest that differences in heteroblasty have co-evolved with overall leaf shape and size in Antirrhinum because these characters are constrained by common underlying genes. By contrast, heteroblasty is not correlated with other developmental transitions, with the exception of internode length, suggesting independent genetic control and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Manuela R Costa
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
- Center for Biodiversity, Functional & Integrative Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Suxin Yang
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Joanna Critchley
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Xianzhong Feng
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Yvette Wilson
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Nicolas Langlade
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Lucy Copsey
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Andrew Hudson
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
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Blanco-Pastor JL, Vargas P, Pfeil BE. Coalescent simulations reveal hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting in Mediterranean Linaria. PLoS One 2012; 7:e39089. [PMID: 22768061 PMCID: PMC3387178 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the phylogenetic history of Linaria with special emphasis on the Mediterranean sect. Supinae (44 species). We revealed extensive highly supported incongruence among two nuclear (ITS, AGT1) and two plastid regions (rpl32-trnLUAG, trnS-trnG). Coalescent simulations, a hybrid detection test and species tree inference in *BEAST revealed that incomplete lineage sorting and hybridization may both be responsible for the incongruent pattern observed. Additionally, we present a multilabelled *BEAST species tree as an alternative approach that allows the possibility of observing multiple placements in the species tree for the same taxa. That permitted the incorporation of processes such as hybridization within the tree while not violating the assumptions of the *BEAST model. This methodology is presented as a functional tool to disclose the evolutionary history of species complexes that have experienced both hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting. The drastic climatic events that have occurred in the Mediterranean since the late Miocene, including the Quaternary-type climatic oscillations, may have made both processes highly recurrent in the Mediterranean flora.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Blanco-Pastor
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Real Jardín Botánico (RJB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain.
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