Oxidation of the sulfhydryl forms of insulin A-chain and B-chain

In vitro nitrosation of insulin A- and B-chains

The physiological roles of insulin and nitric oxide (NO) have been recently recognized by several studies. A diversity of chemical modifications of insulin is reported both in vivo and in vitro. S-nitrosation, the covalent linkage of NO to cysteine free thiol is recognized as an important post-translational regulation in many proteins. Here we report the in vitro synthesis of an S-nitrosothiol of bovine insulin A- and B-chains. These compounds were characterized by their HPLC chromatographic behavior, monitored by UV visible spectroscopy and electron spray ionization mass spectrometry. The experimental results indicate that each A- and B-chain were S- nitrosated with only one NO group. Stability and solubility of these synthesized derivatives is described for physiological purposes. In this work, nitroso A- and B-chains of insulin were synthesized in vitro in order to better understand the possible interactions between insulin and NO that may be involved in the etiology of insulin resistance.

Relationship between insulin A chain regions and insulin biological activities

AIM: To study the relationship between insulin A chain regions and insulin biological activities, we designed a series of insulin analogues with changes at A21, A12-18 of C-terminal helical region and A8-10 located in the region of A6-A11 intra-chain disulphide bond.

METHODS: Insulin A-chain analogues were prepared by stepwise Fmoc solid-phase manual synthesis and then combined with natural B-chain of porcine insulin to yield corresponding insulin analogues. Their biological activities were tested by receptor binding, mouse convulsion and immunological assay.

RESULTS: [A21Ala]Ins retains 70.3% receptor binding capacity and 60% in vivo biological activity. [DesA13-14, A21Ala]Ins and [DesA12-13-14-15, A21Ala] Ins still have definite biological activity, 7.9% and 4.0% receptor binding, and 6.2% and 3.3% in vivo biological activity respectively. [A15Asn, A17Pro, A21Ala]Ins maintains 10.4% receptor binding and 10% in vivo biological activity. [A8His, A9Arg, A10Pro, A21Ala]Ins, [A8His, A9Lys, A10Pro, A21Ala]Ins and [A8His, A9Lys, A10Arg, A21Ala]Ins have 51.9%, 44.3% and 32.1% receptor binding respectively, 50%, 40% and 30% in vivo biological activity respectively, and 28.8%, 29.6% and 15.4% immunological activity respectively.

CONCLUSION: A21Asn can be replaced by simple amino acid residues. The A chains with gradually damaged structur al integrity in A12-18 helical region and the demolition of the A12-18 helical region by the substitution of Pro and Asn for A17Glu and A15Gln respectively ca n combine with the B chain and the combination products show definite biological activity, the helical structure of A12-18 is essential for biological activities of insulin. A8-10 is not much concerned with biological activities, but is much more important antigenically in binding to its antibodies, these results may help us design a new type of insulin analogue molecule.

An insulin analogue with gamma-amino butyric acid substitution for A13Leu-A14Tyr

An insulin A chain analogue, [A13-14 GABA, A21 Ala]A chain, for which the dipeptide Leu-Try at A13-A14 was substituted by a non-coded amino acid, gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) and A21 Asn by Ala, was prepared by stepwise Fmoc solid-phase manual synthesis and then combined with the natural B chain of porcine insulin to yield an insulin analogue, [A13-14 GABA, A21Ala] porcine insulin (GABA substituted insulin). This insulin analogue still retains 50% in vivo biological activity and 59% in receptor binding capacity. It can also be crystallized. These results indicate that its overall conformation is similar to the native form and that the side chains of A13Leu and A14Tyr are not essential for insulin activity. In addition, the replacement of a normal C-N peptide bond by an unnatural C-C bond may have general meaning in structure and function studies of other proteins.

Sulfhydryl proteins and the engram

A scheme, which is selectional not instructional, is described for the molecular basis of the engram. It uses as reactants intermediates formed during the catabolism of neuronal membrane sulfhydryl proteins. It is proposed that these compounds undergoing intermolecular association generate a large number of diverse structures, some of which are selected for further complex formation. The basis of selection is the binding of a particular compound to membrane lipid, which enhances its reaction with another bound compound. Because the composition and configuration of membrane lipids are influenced by environmental factors, the scheme implies that incoming sensory signals are matched with endogenously generated chemical structures.

Isolation and structural characterization of insulin and glucagon from the holocephalan species Callorhynchus milii (elephantfish)

Both insulin and glucagon from the pancreas of the holocephalan cartilaginous fish Callorhynchus milii (elephantfish) have been isolated and purified. Two reverse-phase h.p.l.c. steps enabled recovery of sufficient material for gas-phase sequencing of the intact chains as well as peptide digestion products. The elephantfish insulin sequence shows 14 differences from pig insulin, including two unusual substitutions, Val-A14 and Gln-B30, though none of these is thought likely to influence receptor binding significantly. The insulin B-chain contains 31 residues, one more than mammalian insulins, but markedly less than that of the closely related ratfish with which it otherwise exhibits high sequence similarity. Elephantfish and pig glucagons differ at only four positions, but there are six changes from the ratfish glucagon-36 (normal glucagon contains 29 residues) sequence. It is apparent that different prohormone proteolytic processing mechanisms operate in the two holocephalan species.

Formation of native insulin from the scrambled molecule by protein disulphide-isomerase

The formation of native insulin either from scrambled insulin or from the separated A chain and B chain S-sulphonates by protein disulphide-isomerase was demonstrated with yields of 20-30% as measured by h.p.l.c. analysis, receptor binding and stimulation of lipogenesis. The h.p.l.c. profile of the reaction products shows that, among all the possible isomers containing both chains, the native hormone is by far the predominating product and consequently the most stable under certain conditions.

Resynthesis of insulin from its A and B chains in the presence of denaturants

Reoxidation of the reduced insulin A and B chains in 8 M urea leads to a recovery of native insulin of 2-7% whereas in 6 M guanidine or 0.5 mM dodecylsulfate very little, if any, resynthesis of insulin could be detected. Considering all the possibilities of different oligomeric forms containing one or both of the chains, the yield in 8 M urea is well over the yield as calculated from random joining of the chains and the yield in guanidine or dodecylsulfate is to be expected. It is concluded that some interaction and pairing of the chains occur even in the presence of 8 M urea.

Interaction and combination of separate A and B chains of insulin effects of D-and L-tryptophan in position A1

The S-thiomethyl derivatives of insulin A chain with A1-Gly replaced by D- or L-Trp have been prepared and their respective interaction and combination with the S-thiomethyl B chain studied. The UV difference spectra of the mixed against the separated [Trp1]A chains with the B chain at pH 10.8 are similar to those obtained for the unmodified chains except that the 295-nm-negative peak for ionized Tyr residue appears to be less marked. Fluorescence studies show very little environmental changes at the A1-Trp residues when mixed with the B chain. The intact hormone with A1-Gly replaced by D-Trp is known to be considerably more active than the analog with L-Trp replacement. However, for both derivatives the resynthesis of the whole molecules correctly joined by disulfide bridges starting from the separated reduced chains, gives similar low yields as shown by HPLC analysis and by receptor-binding assay. The replacement of A1-Gly by D-Trp appears to affect the separated A chain more than the intact hormone and replacements at A1 by both D- and L-Trp probably lead to significant conformational changes of the A chain so as to prevent its correct pairing with the B chain.

Interaction and reconstitution of carboxyl-terminal-shortened B chains with the intact A chain of insulin

With the S-(thiomethyl)-A chain and despentapeptide (26-30) and desoctapeptide (23-30) S-(thiomethyl)-B chains of insulin at pH 10.8 and a molar ratio of A/B = 1.5, difference spectra of the mixed against the separated chains with negative peaks at 245 and 295 nm and a weak positive peak at 278 nm indicate interaction of the chains leading to Tyr environmental changes as in the case for the intact chains. With the shortened B chains, freshly dissolved from lyophilized powders, it takes some 2 h for the difference spectra to approach completion whereas with the solutions of the shortened B chains left standing overnight at pH 10.8 and 4 degrees C the difference spectra, similar in shape to that described above, appear almost immediately after mixing. Solvent perturbation with 20% ethylene glycol suggests some ordered structure for the despentapeptide but not for the desoctapeptide B chain. The interactions of the A chain with the shortened B chains appear to be weaker as compared to that with the intact B chain as shown by decreasing reconstitution yields for the intact, despentapeptide, and desoctapeptide B chains respectively with the A chain. The above results indicate that the C-terminal portion of the B chain is important not only for the activity of insulin but also for the correct pairing of the chains.

The isolation, purification and amino-acid sequence of insulin from the teleost fish Cottus scorpius (daddy sculpin)

Insulin from the principal islets of the teleost fish, Cottus scorpius (daddy sculpin), has been isolated and sequenced. Purification involved acid/alcohol extraction, gel filtration, and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to yield nearly 1 mg pure insulin/g wet weight islet tissue. Biological potency was estimated as 40% compared to porcine insulin. The sculpin insulin crystallised in the absence of zinc ions although zinc is known to be present in the islets in significant amounts. Two other hormones, glucagon and pancreatic polypeptide, were copurified with the insulin, and an N-terminal sequence for pancreatic polypeptide was determined. The primary structure of sculpin insulin shows a number of sequence changes unique so far amongst teleost fish. These changes occur at A14 (Arg), A15 (Val), and B2 (Asp). The B chain contains 29 amino acids and there is no N-terminal extension as seen with several other fish. Presumably as a result of the amino acid substitutions, sculpin insulin does not readily form crystals containing zinc-insulin hexamers, despite the presence of the coordinating B10 His.

Preparation and activity of nitrated insulin dimer

Nitration of insulin using tetranitromethane causes polymerisation involving cross-linked tyrosyl residues. By performing this reaction with insulin crystals, in which it is known that B16 tyrosine of one monomer is closely associated with B26 of the neighbouring monomer within the dimer, it has been possible to isolate a covalent dimer of insulin cross-linked between these two tyrosines. It was, however, first necessary to block the reactive A14 tyrosine. Both rhombohedral (hexameric) and cubic (dimeric) pig insulin crystals were used, the latter proving successful in yielding a pure dimeric product as shown by oxidative sulphitolysis and HPLC. The purified nitrated dimer was biologically active (ca. 10% potency compared to monomeric insulin in a lipogenesis assay) suggesting that the residues responsible for insulin's action are present on the surface of the dimer and not buried in the interface.

Semisynthesis of human proinsulin, I. Preparation of arginyl-A-chain cyclic bis-disulfide

The semisynthesis of Arg-A-(SS)2 is described by the following chemical and enzymatic procedures: 1) A-(SSO theta 3)4 was acylated with arginine N-carboxyanhydride by the known method. Arg-A-(SSO theta 3)4 was purified, reduced and oxidized to Arg-A(SS)2. When A(SS)2 was acylated under identical conditions a gel-like product was obtained which could be purified after oxidative sulfitolysis. This was then converted to Arg-A-(SS)2 as described above. Both the pathways gave the desired product in 20-25% yield. 2) Boc-Orn(Msc) was quantitatively attached to A-(SS)2 by the mixed anhydride method, the Msc group was then removed and the ensuing N delta-free amino function was amidinated. Traces of unconverted Orn derivative (less than 6%) were still present. 3) Boc-Arg(HBr) was attached to A-(SS)2 by the mixed anhydride method and Arg-A(SS)2 was isolated after removal of the Boc group in 25% yield. 4) Boc-Arg(DHCH) was attached to A-(SS)2 by the mixed anhydride method. DHCH and Boc groups were removed in two steps and Arg-A-(SS)2 was isolated in 29% yield. 5) Boc-Arg was condensed with A-(SS)2 by trypsin-catalyzed synthesis. The removal of Boc group and purification yielded the desired product in 40-42% yield. This procedure was the most efficient and proceeded stereospecifically.