Purification and properties of nitrogenase from the cyanobacterium, Anabaena cylindrica

Bioactive substances and potentiality of marine microalgae

Microalgae is one of the most important components in the aquatic ecosystem, and they are increasingly used in food and medicine production for human consumption due to their rapid growth cycle and survival ability in the harsh environment. Now, the exploration of microalgae has been gradually deepening, mainly focused on the field of nutrition, medicine, and cosmetics. A great deal of studies has shown that microalgae have a variety of functions in regulating the body health and preventing disease, such as nitrogen fixation, antitumor, antivirus, antioxidation, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic. Furthermore, microalgae can synthesize various high-valued bioactive substances, such as proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and pigments. In this paper, we have briefly reviewed the research progress of main bioactive components in microalgae, proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, pigments, and other nutrients included, as well as their present application situation. This paper can provide the guidance for research and development of industrial production of microalgae.

Streptomyces thermoautotrophicus does not fix nitrogen

Streptomyces thermoautotrophicus UBT1 has been described as a moderately thermophilic chemolithoautotroph with a novel nitrogenase enzyme that is oxygen-insensitive. We have cultured the UBT1 strain, and have isolated two new strains (H1 and P1-2) of very similar phenotypic and genetic characters. These strains show minimal growth on ammonium-free media, and fail to incorporate isotopically labeled N2 gas into biomass in multiple independent assays. The sdn genes previously published as the putative nitrogenase of S. thermoautotrophicus have little similarity to anything found in draft genome sequences, published here, for strains H1 and UBT1, but share >99% nucleotide identity with genes from Hydrogenibacillus schlegelii, a draft genome for which is also presented here. H. schlegelii similarly lacks nitrogenase genes and is a non-diazotroph. We propose reclassification of the species containing strains UBT1, H1, and P1-2 as a non-Streptomycete, non-diazotrophic, facultative chemolithoautotroph and conclude that the existence of the previously proposed oxygen-tolerant nitrogenase is extremely unlikely.

Sequence of the nifD gene coding for the alpha subunit of dinitrogenase from the cyanobacterium Anabaena

The nucleotide sequence of nifD, the structural gene for the alpha subunit of dinitrogenase from Anabaena 7120, has been determined. The coding sequence contains 1,440 nucleotides, which predict an amino acid sequence of 480 residues and M(r) of 54,283. The predicted sequence contains eight cysteines, of which five are conserved with respect to adjoining sequences and position relative to the alpha subunits of dinitrogenase from Azotobacter, Clostridium, and Klebsiella. Because there are also five conserved cysteines in the beta subunit of Anabaena dinitrogenase [Mazur, B. J. & Chiu, C.-F. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79, 6782-6786], the number of cysteine residues participating as ligands to FeS clusters is likely to be 20 per alpha(2)beta(2) tetramer. This number is sufficient to accommodate the known four Fe(4)S(4) clusters, leaving at least four cysteines to be shared among the two FeMo cofactors and the more poorly characterized two-iron center. Although the alpha- and beta-subunit gene sequences are not recognizably homologous, their secondary structures, predicted from the sequences, indicate similar domains around three of the conserved cysteine residues.

Physiological Studies of Oxygen Protection Mechanisms in the Heterocysts of Anabaena cylindrica

The mechanism of O(2) protection of nitrogenase in the heterocysts of Anabaena cylindrica was studied in vivo. Resistance to O(2) inhibition of nitrogenase activity correlated with the O(2) tension of the medium in which heterocyst formation was induced. O(2) resistance also correlated with the apparent K(m) for acetylene, indicating that O(2) tension may influence the development of a gas diffusion barrier in the heterocysts. The role of respiratory activity in protecting nitrogenase from O(2) that diffuses into the heterocyst was studied using inhibitors of carbon metabolism. Reductant limitation induced by 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethylurea increased the O(2) sensitivity of in vivo acetylene reduction. Azide, at concentrations (30 mM) sufficient to completely inhibit dark nitrogenase activity (a process dependent on oxidative phosphorylation for its ATP supply), severely inhibited short-term light-dependent acetylene reduction in the presence of O(2) but not in its absence. After 3 h of aerobic incubation in the presence of 20 mM azide, 75% of cross-reactive component I (Fe-Mo protein) in nitrogenase was lost; less than 35% was lost under microaerophilic conditions. Sodium malonate and monofluoroacetate, inhibitors of Krebs cycle activity, had only small inhibitory effects on nitrogenase activity in the light and on cross-reactive material. The results suggest that oxygen protection is dependent on both an O(2) diffusion barrier and active respiration by the heterocyst.

Coevolution of metal availability and nitrogen assimilation in cyanobacteria and algae

Marine primary producers adapted over eons to the changing chemistry of the oceans. Because a number of metalloenzymes are necessary for N assimilation, changes in the availability of transition metals posed a particular challenge to the supply of this critical nutrient that regulates marine biomass and productivity. Integrating recently developed geochemical, biochemical, and genetic evidence, we infer that the use of metals in N assimilation - particularly Fe and Mo - can be understood in terms of the history of metal availability through time. Anoxic, Fe-rich Archean oceans were conducive to the evolution of Fe-using enzymes that assimilate abiogenic NH(4)(+) and NO(2)(-). The N demands of an expanding biosphere were satisfied by the evolution of biological N(2) fixation, possibly utilizing only Fe. Trace O(2) in late Archean environments, and the eventual 'Great Oxidation Event' c. 2.3 Ga, mobilized metals such as Mo, enabling the evolution of Mo (or V)-based N(2) fixation and the Mo-dependent enzymes for NO(3)(-) assimilation and denitrification by prokaryotes. However, the subsequent onset of deep-sea euxinia, an increasingly-accepted idea, may have kept ocean Mo inventories low and depressed Fe, limiting the rate of N(2) fixation and the supply of fixed N. Eukaryotic ecosystems may have been particularly disadvantaged by N scarcity and the high Mo requirement of eukaryotic NO(3)(-) assimilation. Thorough ocean oxygenation in the Neoproterozoic led to Mo-rich oceans, possibly contributing to the proliferation of eukaryotes and thus the Cambrian explosion of metazoan life. These ideas can be tested by more intensive study of the metal requirements in N assimilation and the biological strategies for metal uptake, regulation, and storage.

Role of calcium in the inhibition of nitrogenase activity by Methylparathion and Benthiocarb in the cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum

Methylparathion and Benthiocarb inhibition of N2 fixation in the cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum was reversed by Ca(2+) at 1 mM but not at 0.1 mM. The concentration of intracellular Ca(2+) was relatively high in the presence of these pesticides when 1 mM Ca(2+) was also present, indicating that intracellular Ca(2+) may participate in protecting nitrogenase activity against Methylparathion and Benthiocarb.

Oxygen relations of nitrogen fixation in cyanobacteria

The enigmatic coexistence of O2-sensitive nitrogenase and O2-evolving photosynthesis in diazotrophic cyanobacteria has fascinated researchers for over two decades. Research efforts in the past 10 years have revealed a range of O2 sensitivity of nitrogenase in different strains of cyanobacteria and a variety of adaptations for the protection of nitrogenase from damage by both atmospheric and photosynthetic sources of O2. The most complex and apparently most efficient mechanisms for the protection of nitrogenase are incorporated in the heterocysts, the N2-fixing cells of cyanobacteria. Genetic studies indicate that the controls of heterocyst development and nitrogenase synthesis are closely interrelated and that the expression of N2 fixation (nif) genes is regulated by pO2.

Dinitrogenase reductase (Fe-protein) of nitrogenase in the cyanobacterial symbionts of three Azolla species: Localization and sequence of appearance during heterocyst differentiation

Transmission electron microscopy and immunocytological labeling were used to study the distribution and ontological occurrence of dinitrogenase reductase (Fe-protein) of nitrogenase in cyanobacterial symbionts within young leaves of the water-ferns Azolla filiculoides Lamarck, A. caroliniana Willdenow, and A. pinnata R. Brown. Rabbit anti-dinitrogenase reductase antisera and goat anti-rabbit-immunoglobulin G antibody conjugated to colloidal gold were used as probes. Western blot analyses showed that a polypeptide of approx. 36 kDa (kdalton) was recognized in the symbionts of all three Azolla species and that the polyclonal sera used were monospecific. In all symbionts, nitrogenase was immunologically recognizable within heterocysts. It was absent from vegetative cells, and also from the akinetes of the A. caroliniana and A. pinnata symbionts. The differentiation of vegetative cells into heterocysts in all three symbionts was initiated by formation of additional external cell-wall layers and narrowing of the neck followed by loss of glycogen, mild vesiculation of thylakoid membranes, and the appearance of polar nodules. No nitrogenase was detected at these early stages, but it appeared in the intermediate proheterocyst stage concomitantly with the formation of contorted membranes, and reached the strongest labeling in mature heterocysts, containing extensive tightly packed membranes. Nitrogenase was evenly distributed throughout heterocysts except at the polar regions, which contained honey-comb configurations and large polar nodules. With increased age of the A. caroliniana and A. pinnata symbionts, heterocysts became highly vesiculated, with a concomitant decrease in the amount of nitrogenase detected.

Molecular aspects of nitrogen fixation by photosynthetic prokaryotes

The photosynthetic prokaryotes possess diverse metabolic capabilities, both in carrying out different types of photosynthesis and in their other growth modes. The nature of the coupling of these energy-generating processes with the basic metabolic demands of the cell, such as nitrogen fixation, has stimulated research for many years. In addition, nitrogen fixation by photosynthetic prokaryotes exhibits several unique features; the oxygen-evolving cyanobacteria have developed various strategies for protection of the oxygen-labile nitrogenase proteins, and some photosynthetic bacteria have been found to regulate their nitrogenase (N2ase) activity in a rapid response to fixed nitrogen, thus saving substantial amounts of energy. Recent advances in the biochemistry, physiology, and genetics of nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria and photosynthetic bacteria are reviewed, with special emphasis on the unique features found in these organisms. Several major topics in cyanobacterial nitrogen fixation are reviewed. The isolation and characterization of N2ase and the isolation and sequence of N2ase structural genes have shown a great deal of similarity with other organisms. The possible pathways of electron flow to N2ase, the mechanisms of oxygen protection, and the control of nif expression and heterocyst differentiation will be discussed. Several recent advances in the physiology and biochemistry of nitrogen fixation by the photosynthetic bacteria are reviewed. Photosynthetic bacteria have been found to fix nitrogen microaerobically in darkness. The regulation of nif expression and possible pathways of electron flow to N2ase are discussed. The isolation of N2ase proteins, particularly the covalent modification of the Fe protein, the nature of the modifying group, properties of the activating enzyme, and regulating factors of the inactivation/activation process are reviewed.

Evidence for direct repression of nitrogenase by ammonia in the cyanobacterium Anabaena cylindrica

The nitrogenase activity of the cyanobacterium Anabaena cylindrica was repressed upon addition of ammonium salts after preincubation in the presence of a concentration of L-methionine-DL-sulfoximine sufficient to totally inhibit glutamine synthetase. Repression was also observed when urea was added to cells in the presence of the glutamine synthetase inhibitor. Measurements of ammonia concentrations were made in each case and provided evidence that ammonia itself is a primary regulator of nitrogenase levels in A. cylindrica.

The use of nickel to probe the role of hydrogen metabolism in cyanobacterial nitrogen fixation

The hydrogenase activities of the heterocystous cyanobacteria Anabaena cylindrica and Mastigocladus laminosus are nickel dependent, based on their inability to consume hydrogen with various electron acceptors or produce hydrogen with dithionite-reduced methyl viologen, after growth in nickel-depleted medium. Upon addition of nickel ions to nickel-deficient cultures of A. cylindrica, the hydrogenase activity recovered in a manner which was protein synthesis-dependent, the recovery being inhibited by chloramphenicol. We have used the nickel dependence of the hydrogenase as a probe of the possible roles of H2 consumption in enhancing nitrogen fixation, and particularly for protecting nitrogenase against oxygen inhibition. Although at the usual growth temperatures (25 degrees for A. cylindrica and 40 degrees for M. laminosus), the cells consume H2 vigorously in an oxyhydrogen reaction after growth in the presence of nickel ions, we have not found that the reaction confers any significant additional protection of nitrogenase, either at aerobic pO2 (for both organisms) or at elevated pO2 (for A. cylindrica). However, at elevated temperatures (e.g., 40 degrees for A. cylindrica and 48 degrees for M. laminosus) a definite protective effect was observed. At these temperatures both organisms rapidly lost acetylene reduction activity under aerobic conditions. When hydrogen gas (10%) was present, the cells retained approximately 50% of the nitrogenase activity observed under anaerobic conditions (argon gas phase). No such protection by hydrogen gas was observed with nickel-deficient cells. Studies with cell-free extracts of A. cylindrica showed that the predominant effect of temperature was not due to thermal inactivation of nitrogenase.

Oxygen protection of nitrogenase in Frankia sp. HFPArI3

O2 protection of nitrogenase in a cultured Frankia isolate from Alnus rubra (HFPArI3) was studied in vivo. Evidence for a passive gas diffusion barrier in the vesicles was obtained by kinetic analysis of in vivo O2 uptake and acetylene reduction rates in response to substrate concentration. O2 of NH4+-grown cells showed an apparent KmO2 of approximately 1 microM O2. In N2-fixing cultures a second Km O2 of about 215 microM O2 was observed. Thus, respiration remained unsaturated by O2 at air-saturation levels. In vivo, the apparent Km for acetylene was more than 10-fold greater than reported in vitro values. These data were interpreted as evidence for a gas diffusion barrier in the vesicles but not vegetative filaments of Frankia sp. HFPArI3.

Nitrogenase reduction by electron carriers: influence of redox potential on activity and the ATP/2e- ratio

The variation with redox potential of nitrogenase activity and the ratio of ATP hydrolyzed per two electrons transferred were measured using two systems: the dithionite/bisulfite couple at pH 7.4; and H2, hydrogenase, and ferredoxin at pH 8.5. In both cases, the variation in nitrogenase activity with redox potential followed a theoretical Nernst plot for a two-electron process with an apparent midpoint potential of about -470 mV. The ratio ATP/2e- was about 4 under highly reducing conditions. However, above the apparent midpoint potential, the ratio ATP/2e- increased drastically, reaching values as high as 20. These data imply that a low redox potential must be maintained for efficient nitrogen fixation in vitro and in vivo.

Oxygen inactivation and recovery of nitrogenase activity in cyanobacteria

Exposure of nitrogen-fixing cultures of Anabaena spp. to 100% oxygen resulted in the rapid decline of nitrogenase activity. When oxygen-treated cells were transferred to 100% argon, nitrogenase activity was quickly restored in a process that required protein synthesis. Anaerobiosis was not essential for the recovery process; in fact, cells of Anabaena sp. strains CA and 1F will recover nitrogenase activity after prolonged incubation in 100% oxygen. Oxygen treatment acted directly on the intracellular nitrogenase and did not affect other metabolic processes. Examination of crude extracts of oxygen-treated Anabaena sp. strain CA indicated that both components of nitrogenase are inactivated. However, several lines of evidence suggest that oxygen treatment does not result in irreversible denaturation of nitrogenase, but rather results in a reversible inactivation which may serve as a protection mechanism. Nitrogenase present in crude extracts from cells of Anabaena sp. strain 1F which had been incubated for a prolonged period in 100% oxygen was less sensitive to oxygen in vitro than was nitrogenase of a crude extract of untreated cells.

Nitrogenase from the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas capsulata: purification and molecular properties

Nitrogenase proteins were isolated from cultures of the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas capsulata grown on a limiting amount of ammonia. Under these conditions, the nitrogenase N2ase A was active in vivo, and nitrogenase activity in vitro was not dependent upon manganese and the activating factor. The nitrogenase proteins were also isolated from nitrogen-limited cultures in which the in vivo nitrogenase activity had been stopped by an ammonia shock. This nitrogenase activity, N2ase R, showed an in vitro requirement for manganese and the activating factor for maximal activity. The Mo-Fe protein (dinitrogenase) was composed of two dissimilar subunits with molecular weights of 55,000 and 59,500; the Fe protein (dinitrogenase reductase), from either type of culture, was composed of a single subunit (molecular weight), 33,500). The metal and acid labile sulfur contents of both nitrogenase proteins were similar to those found for previously isolated nitrogenases. The Fe proteins from both N2ase A and N2ase R contained phosphate and ribose, 2 mol of each per mol of N2ase R Fe protein and about 1 mol of each per mol of N2ase A Fe protein. The greatest difference between the two types of Fe protein was that the N2ase R Fe protein contained about 1 mol per mol of an adenine-like molecule, whereas the N2ase A Fe protein content of this compound was insignificant. These results are compared with various models previously presented for the short-term regulation of nitrogenase activity in the photosynthetic bacteria.

Increase of nitrogenase activity in the blue-green alga Nostoc muscorum (Cyanobacterium)

Preincubation of the blue-green alga (cyanobacterium) Nostoc muscorum under hydrogen or argon (nongrowing conditions, neither CO(2) nor N(2) or bound nitrogen present) in the light resulted in a two- to fourfold increase of light-induced hydrogen evolution and a 30% increase of acetylene reduction. Preincubation under the same gases in the dark led to a decrease of both activities. Cultivation of algae under a hydrogen-containing atmosphere (N(2), H(2), CO(2)) increased neither hydrogen nor ethylene evolution by the cells. Formation of both ethylene and hydrogen is due to nitrogenase activity, which apparently was induced by the absence of N(2) or bound nitrogen and not by the presence of hydrogen. Inhibitors of protein biosynthesis prevented the increase of nitrogenase activity. Hydrogen uptake by the cells was almost unaffected under all of these conditions. With either ammonia or chloramphenicol present, nitrogenase activity decreased under growing conditions (i.e., an atmosphere of N(2) and CO(2)). The kinetics of decrease were the same with ammonia or chloramphenicol, which was interpreted as being due to rapid protein breakdown with a half-life of approximately 4 h. The decay of nitrogenase activity caused by chloramphenicol could be counteracted by nitrogenase-inducing conditions, i.e., by the absence of N(2) or bound nitrogen. A cell-free system from preconditioned algae with an adenosine 5'-triphosphate-generating system exhibited the same increase or decrease of nitrogenase activity as the intact cell filaments, indicating that this effect resided in the nitrogenase complex only. We tentatively assume that not the whole nitrogenase complex, but merely a subunit or a special protein with regulatory function, is susceptible to fast turnover.