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Indrischek H, Prohaska SJ, Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV, Stadler PF. Uncovering missing pieces: duplication and deletion history of arrestins in deuterostomes. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:163. [PMID: 28683816 PMCID: PMC5501109 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-1001-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cytosolic arrestin proteins mediate desensitization of activated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) via competition with G proteins for the active phosphorylated receptors. Arrestins in active, including receptor-bound, conformation are also transducers of signaling. Therefore, this protein family is an attractive therapeutic target. The signaling outcome is believed to be a result of structural and sequence-dependent interactions of arrestins with GPCRs and other protein partners. Here we elucidated the detailed evolution of arrestins in deuterostomes. RESULTS Identity and number of arrestin paralogs were determined searching deuterostome genomes and gene expression data. In contrast to standard gene prediction methods, our strategy first detects exons situated on different scaffolds and then solves the problem of assigning them to the correct gene. This increases both the completeness and the accuracy of the annotation in comparison to conventional database search strategies applied by the community. The employed strategy enabled us to map in detail the duplication- and deletion history of arrestin paralogs including tandem duplications, pseudogenizations and the formation of retrogenes. The two rounds of whole genome duplications in the vertebrate stem lineage gave rise to four arrestin paralogs. Surprisingly, visual arrestin ARR3 was lost in the mammalian clades Afrotheria and Xenarthra. Duplications in specific clades, on the other hand, must have given rise to new paralogs that show signatures of diversification in functional elements important for receptor binding and phosphate sensing. CONCLUSION The current study traces the functional evolution of deuterostome arrestins in unprecedented detail. Based on a precise re-annotation of the exon-intron structure at nucleotide resolution, we infer the gain and loss of paralogs and patterns of conservation, co-variation and selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrike Indrischek
- Computational EvoDevo Group, Department of Computer Science, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany.
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany.
- Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany.
| | - Sonja J Prohaska
- Computational EvoDevo Group, Department of Computer Science, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany
| | - Vsevolod V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, 2200 Pierce Ave, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Eugenia V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, 2200 Pierce Ave, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Peter F Stadler
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, D-04107, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Inselstraße 22, Leipzig, D-04103, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Perlickstraße 1, Leipzig, D-04103, Germany
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 17, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
- Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, Grønegårdsvej 3, Frederiksberg C, DK-1870, Denmark
- Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Rd., Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA
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GRK1-dependent phosphorylation of S and M opsins and their binding to cone arrestin during cone phototransduction in the mouse retina. J Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 12853434 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-14-06152.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The shutoff mechanisms of the rod visual transduction cascade involve G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinase 1 (GRK1) phosphorylation of light-activated rhodopsin (R*) followed by rod arrestin binding. Deactivation of the cone phototransduction cascade in the mammalian retina is delineated poorly. In this study we sought to explore the potential mechanisms underlying the quenching of the phototransduction cascade in cone photoreceptors by using mouse models lacking rods and/or GRK1. Using the "pure-cone" retinas of the neural retina leucine zipper (Nrl) knock-out (KO, -/-) mice (Mears et al., 2001), we have demonstrated the light-dependent, multi-site phosphorylation of both S and M cone opsins by in situ phosphorylation and isoelectric focusing. Immunoprecipitation with affinity-purified polyclonal antibodies against either mouse cone arrestin (mCAR) or mouse S and M cone opsins revealed specific binding of mCAR to light-activated, phosphorylated cone opsins. To elucidate the potential role of GRK1 in cone opsin phosphorylation, we created Nrl and Grk1 double knock-out (Nrl-/-Grk1-/-) mice by crossing the Nrl-/- mice with Grk1-/- mice (Chen et al., 1999). We found that, in the retina of these mice, the light-activated cone opsins were neither phosphorylated nor bound with mCAR. Our results demonstrate, for the first time in a mammalian species, that cone opsins are phosphorylated and that CAR binds to phosphorylated cone opsins after light activation.
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Hisatomi O, Tokunaga F. Molecular evolution of proteins involved in vertebrate phototransduction. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2002; 133:509-22. [PMID: 12470815 DOI: 10.1016/s1096-4959(02)00127-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Vision is one of the most important senses for vertebrates. As a result, vertebrates have evolved a highly organized system of retinal photoreceptors. Light triggers an enzymatic cascade, called the phototransduction cascade, that leads to the hyperpolarization of photoreceptors. It is expected that a systematic comparison of phototransduction cascades of various vertebrates can provide insights into the diversity of vertebrate photoreceptors and into the evolution of vertebrate vision. However, only a few attempts have been made to compare each phototransduction protein participating in this cascade. Here, we determine phylogenetic trees of the vertebrate phototransduction proteins and compare them. It is demonstrated that vertebrate opsin sequences fall into five fundamental subfamilies. It is speculated that this is crucial for the diversity of the spectral sensitivity observed in vertebrate photoreceptors and provides the vertebrates with the molecular tools to discriminate the color of incident light. Other phototransduction proteins can be classified into only a few subfamilies. Cones generally share isoforms of phototransduction proteins that are different from those found in rods. The difference in sensitivity to light between rods and cones is likely due to the difference in the molecular properties of these isoforms. The phototransduction proteins seem to have co-evolved as a system. Switching the expression of these isoforms may characterize individual vertebrate photoreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Hisatomi
- Department of Earth and Space Science, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Osaka Toyonaka 560-0043, Japan.
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Zhu X, Ma B, Babu S, Murage J, Knox BE, Craft CM. Mouse cone arrestin gene characterization: promoter targets expression to cone photoreceptors. FEBS Lett 2002; 524:116-22. [PMID: 12135752 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(02)03014-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cone arrestin (CAR) is a novel member of the arrestin superfamily expressed in retinal cone photoreceptors and the pineal gland. To understand the regulatory mechanisms controlling its cone- and pineal-specific expression, and to facilitate further functional studies using gene knockout approaches, we characterized the genomic organization and the 5'-flanking region of the mouse CAR (mCAR) gene. The mCAR gene is comprised of 17 exons and 16 introns, encoding five alternatively spliced transcripts. A 215-bp proximal promoter fragment containing a TATA box, an Sp1 site and four cone-rod homeobox-binding sites is sufficient to direct expression in cultured retinoblastoma cells and in cone photoreceptors and the pineal gland in transgenic Xenopus laevis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Zhu
- The Mary D. Allen Laboratory for Vision Research, Doheny Eye Institute, Department of Cell and Neurobiology, The Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-9112, USA
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Mani SS, Besharse JC, Knox BE. Immediate upstream sequence of arrestin directs rod-specific expression in Xenopus. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:15590-7. [PMID: 10336455 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.22.15590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Arrestins are a family of proteins that modulate G protein-coupled receptor responses with distinct arrestin genes expressed in rods and cones. To understand the regulatory mechanisms controlling rod-specific expression, the abundant Xenopus rod arrestin cDNA and a partial genomic clone, containing the immediate upstream region and amino terminus of the polypeptide, have been characterized. The deduced polypeptide has approximately 69% identity to other vertebrate rod arrestins. Southern blot analysis and polymerase chain reaction of intronic sequences demonstrated multiple alleles for rod arrestin. DNase I footprinting with retinal proteins revealed four major DNA binding sites in the proximal promoter, coinciding with consensus sequences reported in mammalian promoters. Purified bovine Crx homeodomain and mouse Nrl proteins protected a number of these sites. A dual approach of transient embryo transfections and transgenesis was used to locate transcriptional control sequences essential for rod-specific expression in Xenopus. Constructs containing -1287/+113 of 5' upstream sequence with or without intron 1 directed high level expression, specifically in rods. A construct containing only -287/+113 directed expression of green fluorescent protein solely in rod cells. These results suggest that the Crx and Nrl binding sites in the proximal promoter are the primary cis-acting sequences regulating arrestin gene expression in rods.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Mani
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Health Science Center at Syracuse, New York 13210, USA
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