Classification and differentiation of the genus Peganum indigenous to China based on chloroplast trnL-F and psbA-trnH sequences and seed coat morphology

Natural Product-Derived Phytochemicals for Influenza A Virus (H1N1) Prevention and Treatment

Influenza A (H1N1) viruses are prone to antigenic mutations and are more variable than other influenza viruses. Therefore, they have caused continuous harm to human public health since the pandemic in 2009 and in recent times. Influenza A (H1N1) can be prevented and treated in various ways, such as direct inhibition of the virus and regulation of human immunity. Among antiviral drugs, the use of natural products in treating influenza has a long history, and natural medicine has been widely considered the focus of development programs for new, safe anti-influenza drugs. In this paper, we focus on influenza A (H1N1) and summarize the natural product-derived phytochemicals for influenza A virus (H1N1) prevention and treatment, including marine natural products, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids and their derivatives, phenols and their derivatives, polysaccharides, and derivatives of natural products for prevention and treatment of influenza A (H1N1) virus. We further discuss the toxicity and antiviral mechanism against influenza A (H1N1) as well as the druggability of natural products. We hope that this review will facilitate the study of the role of natural products against influenza A (H1N1) activity and provide a promising alternative for further anti-influenza A drug development.

Fusion of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and RGB for identification of soybean kernel damages using ShuffleNet with convolutional optimization and cross stage partial architecture

Identification of soybean kernel damages is significant to prevent further disoperation. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) has shown great potential in cereal kernel identification, but its low spatial resolution leads to external feature infidelity and limits the analysis accuracy. In this study, the fusion of HSI and RGB images and improved ShuffleNet were combined to develop an identification method for soybean kernel damages. First, the HSI-RGB fusion network (HRFN) was designed based on super-resolution and spectral modification modules to process the registered HSI and RGB image pairs and generate super-resolution HSI (SR-HSI) images. ShuffleNet improved with convolution optimization and cross-stage partial architecture (ShuffleNet_COCSP) was used to build classification models with the optimal image set of effective wavelengths (OISEW) of SR-HSI images obtained by support vector machine and ShuffleNet. High-quality fusion of HSI and RGB with the obvious spatial promotion and satisfactory spectral conservation was gained by HRFN. ShuffleNet_COCSP and OISEW obtained the optimal recognition performance of ACC_p=98.36%, Params=0.805 M, and FLOPs=0.097 G, outperforming other classification methods and other types of images. Overall, the proposed method provides an accurate and reliable identification of soybean kernel damages and would be extended to analysis of other quality indicators of various crop kernels.

Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiviral, and Antiparasitic Activities of Peganum harmala and Its Ingredients: A Review

Infectious diseases have always been the number one enemy threatening health and well-being. With increasing numbers of infectious diseases, growing resistance of pathogens, and declining roles of antibiotics in the treatment of infectious diseases, it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat new infectious diseases, and there is an urgent need to develop new antibiotics to change the situation. Natural products tend to exhibit many special biological properties. The genus Peganum (Zygophyllaceae) has been used, for a long time, to treat cough, asthma, lumbago, hypertension, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease. Over the past two decades, a growing number of studies have shown that components from Peganum harmala Linn and its derivatives can inhibit a variety of microorganisms by inducing the accumulation of ROS in microorganisms, damaging cell membranes, thickening cell walls, disturbing cytoplasm, and interfering with DNA synthesis. In this paper, we provide a review on the antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiparasitic activities of P. harmala, with a view to contribute to research on utilizing P. harmala for medicinal applicaitons and to provide a reference in the field of antimicrobial and a basis for the development of natural antimicrobial agents for the treatment of infectious diseases.

Changes in the Soil Fungal Community Mediated by a Peganum harmala Allelochemical

Plants can release phytotoxic allelochemicals into the environment, not only to suppress other plants’ growth, but also alter community structure of soil microbiota, however, the mechanism are often complicated. We designed a consecutive cultivation procedure to evaluate the allelopathic effect of harmaline, the major active allelochemical produced by the desert plant Peganum harmala, on soil microorganisms. Harmaline was added to the soil at 20 μg/g, and after five generations of cultivation, the Chao1, Pielou, Shannon and Simpon indexes changed significantly. In particular, the relative abundances of the dominant fungi, Alternaria sp. and Fusarium sp., declined drastically by 84.90 and 91.90%, respectively. Further in vitro bioassays confirmed that harmaline indeed suppressed growth of 6 Alternaria and Fusarium strains isolated from P. harmala rhizosphere soil. We thus suspect that P. harmala might produce harmaline as an effective carry-on pesticide to defend against general pathogens such as Alternaria sp. and Fusarium sp. and favor itself. Our consecutive cultivation procedure has successfully magnified the core signals from the chaotic data, implying that it can be applied to measure the effects of other allelochemicals on soil microbiota.

Anti-tumor alkaloids from Peganum harmala

Six alkaloids peharmalines F-K, along with 14 known ones, were isolated from the aerial part of Peganum harmala L.. The structures of the isolated compounds were determined based on their HR-ESI-MS data, extensive NMR spectroscopic analyses, and ECD calculations. 3-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)quinoline exhibited potent antiproliferative activity against the HepG-2 cell lines with an IC₅₀ value of 3.05 μM. Norharmane displayed a moderate inhibition against A549 and HepG-2 cells with IC₅₀ values of 16.45 μM and 17.27 μM, respectively.

Toward the Allelopathy of Peganum sp. and Related Chemical Constituents in Agriculture

The genus Peganum constitutes one of the perennial groups of plants of semi-arid regions across the world. It produces diverse classes of metabolites with claimed valuable pharmacological applications. Despite the key chemical and biological properties of the genus, its allelopathy or that of one of its species has not been reviewed yet. Thus, the present survey aims to report the agricultural applications of extracts, fractions, and compounds from the genus Peganum. This work was based on the available literature related to both the Peganum genus and agriculture, which were generated from available high-impact scientific engines. The plants in this genus contain a large group of secondary metabolites including phenolic compounds, terpenes, and N-containing compounds. Alkaloids, as the main components of the extracts from plants in the genus, were identified as the major active principles. The toxicity of Peganum isolates against plants and related pest organisms was also reviewed. Extract preparations from species of Peganum were listed among insecticidal and herbicidal allelochemicals used for crop protection. The review also tried to contextualize natural products in agriculture. Peganum plant extracts and fractions have showed significant potential in weed and crops management, soil health, and biopesticide production.

Chemoinformatic analysis of alkaloids isolated from Peganum genus

Peganum genus is rich with its high phytochemical and botanical variability. Peganum species have been used as a sedative, antitumor, analgesic and antidepressant. This paper aims to study the molecular diversity of Peganum genus and to shed more light on the structure-activity relationship of the alkaloids isolated from Peganum genus. All Peganum alkaloids were grouped according to their structural properties. A chemoinformatic approach (SwissTargetPrediction) was used to determine the molecular targets of these alkaloids. To analyze and visualize the results, R software was used to generate hierarchical clustering heatmaps. The results of this study can help researchers to better understand the structure-activity relationship of Peganum alkaloids and how substitution can affect the biological activity of those alkaloids.

Peganum spp.: A Comprehensive Review on Bioactivities and Health-Enhancing Effects and Their Potential for the Formulation of Functional Foods and Pharmaceutical Drugs

The genus Peganum includes four species widely distributed in warm temperate to subtropical regions from the Mediterranean to Mongolia as well as certain regions in America. Among these species, Peganum harmala L., distributed from the Mediterranean region to Central Asia, has been studied and its phytochemical profile, traditional folk use, and application in pharmacological and clinical trials are well known. The review is aimed at presenting an insight into the botanical features and geographical distribution of Peganum spp. along with traditional folk uses. This manuscript also reviews the phytochemical profile of Peganum spp. and its correlation with biological activities evidenced by the in vitro and in vivo investigations. Moreover, this review gives us an understanding of the bioactive compounds from Peganum as health promoters followed by the safety and adverse effects on human health. In relation to their multipurpose therapeutic properties, various parts of this plant such as seeds, bark, and roots present bioactive compounds promoting health benefits. An updated search (until December 2020) was carried out in databases such as PubMed and ScienceDirect. Chemical studies have presented beta-carboline alkaloids as the most active constituents, with harmalol, harmaline, and harmine being the latest and most studied among these naturally occurring alkaloids. The Peganum spp. extracts have shown neuroprotective, anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects. The extracts are also found effective in improving respiratory disorders (asthma and cough conditions), dermatoses, and knee osteoarthritis. Bioactivities and health-enhancing effects of Peganum spp. make it a potential candidate for the formulation of functional foods and pharmaceutical drugs. Nevertheless, adverse effects of this plant have also been described, and therefore new bioproducts need to be studied in depth. In fact, the design of new formulations and nanoformulations to control the release of active compounds will be necessary to achieve successful pharmacological and therapeutic treatments.

Effects of Peganum harmala L. Seed Extract on Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae)

Mosquito-borne diseases result in the loss of life and economy, primarily in subtropical and tropical countries, and the emerging resistance to insecticides is increasing this threat. Botanical insecticides are promising substitutes for synthetic insecticides. This study evaluated the larvicidal and growth index of Culex pipiens of four solvent extracts of Terminalia chebula, Aloe perryi, and Peganum harmala against Cx. pipiens. None of the 12 extracts exhibited larvicidal potential against third instars except the ethyl acetate extract of P. harmala. After 24 h of exposure, the LC50 value was 314.88 ppm, and the LC90 value was 464.19 ppm. At 320 ppm, the hatchability was 25.83%, and it resulted in 100% mortality. In addition, the eggs treated with the EtOAc extract of P. Harmala exhibited a long larval period compared with the control. The larval period continued for 12 days, and the pupal period took three days in the treatment groups. The growth index data also exhibited a decrease (0.00-7.53) in the treated groups compare with 8.5 in the control. The transformation of eggs into adults decreased with increasing concentrations. This paper is the first report on the development and growth index of Cx. pipiens potential using P. harmala seeds.

Nondestructive Classification of Soybean Seed Varieties by Hyperspectral Imaging and Ensemble Machine Learning Algorithms

During the processing and planting of soybeans, it is greatly significant that a reliable, rapid, and accurate technique is used to detect soybean varieties. Traditional chemical analysis methods of soybean variety sampling (e.g., mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography) are destructive and time-consuming. In this paper, a robust and accurate method for nondestructive soybean classification is developed through hyperspectral imaging and ensemble machine learning algorithms. Image acquisition, preprocessing, and feature selection are used to obtain different types of soybean hyperspectral features. Based on these features, one of ensemble classifiers-random subspace linear discriminant (RSLD) algorithm is used to classify soybean seeds. Compared with the linear discrimination (LD) and linear support vector machine (LSVM) methods, the results show that the RSLD algorithm in this paper is more stable and reliable. In classifying soybeans in 10, 15, 20, and 25 categories, the RSLD method achieves the highest classification accuracy. When 155 features are used to classify 15 types of soybeans, the classification accuracy of the RSLD method reaches 99.2%, while the classification accuracies of the LD and LSVM methods are only 98.6% and 69.7%, respectively. Therefore, the ensemble classification algorithm RSLD can maintain high classification accuracy when different types and different classification features are used.

Analysis of alkaloids from Peganum harmala L. sequential extracts by liquid chromatography coupled to ion mobility spectrometry

An orthogonal two dimensional analysis method based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation and electrospray ionization-ion mobility spectrometry (ESI-IMS) detection was developed for the analysis of alkaloid compounds from Peganum harmala L. seeds. Reverse phase (RP) and hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) were compared for the most optimal performance using three different chromatographic columns. The experimental results suggest that HILIC mode is a better option for combining with the ESI-IMS system for higher sensitivity and ease in hyphenating. Under optimized conditions, alkaloids from different extraction phases were determined by means of the established HPLC-IMS method. More compounds from Peganum harmala L. seed extracts were differentiated on the HPLC-ESI-IMS system by their retention time and drift time than by HPLC or ESI-IMS alone, and thirteen alkaloids were tentatively identified based on m/z and fragment ions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Hence, our results indicate that this method can be considered to be advantageous over traditional absorbance detection methods for resolving complex mixtures because of complementary separation steps, elevated peak capacity, and higher sensitivity.

A novel approach to study the morphology and chemistry of pollen in a phylogenetic context, applied to the halophytic taxon Nitraria L.(Nitrariaceae)

Nitraria is a halophytic taxon (i.e., adapted to saline environments) that belongs to the plant family Nitrariaceae and is distributed from the Mediterranean, across Asia into the south-eastern tip of Australia. This taxon is thought to have originated in Asia during the Paleogene (66-23 Ma), alongside the proto-Paratethys epicontinental sea. The evolutionary history of Nitraria might hold important clues on the links between climatic and biotic evolution but limited taxonomic documentation of this taxon has thus far hindered this line of research. Here we investigate if the pollen morphology and the chemical composition of the pollen wall are informative of the evolutionary history of Nitraria and could explain if origination along the proto-Paratethys and dispersal to the Tibetan Plateau was simultaneous or a secondary process. To answer these questions, we applied a novel approach consisting of a combination of Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), to determine the chemical composition of the pollen wall, and pollen morphological analyses using Light Microscopy (LM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). We analysed our data using ordinations (principal components analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling), and directly mapped it on the Nitrariaceae phylogeny to produce a phylomorphospace and a phylochemospace. Our LM, SEM and FTIR analyses show clear morphological and chemical differences between the sister groups Peganum and Nitraria. Differences in the morphological and chemical characteristics of highland species (Nitraria schoberi, N. sphaerocarpa, N. sibirica and N. tangutorum) and lowland species (Nitraria billardierei and N. retusa) are very subtle, with phylogenetic history appearing to be a more important control on Nitraria pollen than local environmental conditions. Our approach shows a compelling consistency between the chemical and morphological characteristics of the eight studied Nitrariaceae species, and these traits are in agreement with the phylogenetic tree. Taken together, this demonstrates how novel methods for studying fossil pollen can facilitate the evolutionary investigation of living and extinct taxa, and the environments they represent.

NMR-based metabolomic profiling of Peganum harmala L. reveals dynamic variations between different growth stages

Xerophytes play an active role in preventing soil denudation and desertification in arid and semi-arid areas. Peganum harmala L. (Zygophyllaceae family), a seasonally growing, poisonous and drought-tolerant plant, is widely distributed in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and used as a traditional herbal medicine as well as, in winter, a fodder source. Previous research has focused on the pharmacological activity of isolated compounds and stress responses to growth environments. However, the metabolic profile of P. harmala and variations in its metabolites, including medicinally active and stress resistance components, have not been illustrated during different growth stages. Here, we collected plant samples in May, August, October and December. We determined the metabolic composition of methanol extracts using NMR spectroscopy, and comparisons of four growth stages were accomplished by applying statistical analysis. The results showed that vasicine, choline and sucrose were significantly elevated in samples harvested in May. Significantly higher amounts of betaine, lysine, 4-hydroxyisoleucine and proline were found in samples collected in August than in samples collected in other months, and the concentrations of phosphorylcholine, glucose, acetic acid and vasicinone were highest in December. The relationships between differential biomarkers and plant physiological states affected by diverse growth environmental factors were discussed. Our result deepened the understanding of metabolic mechanisms in plant development and confirmed the advantage of using NMR-based metabolomic treatments in quality evaluation when P. harmala is used for different purposes.

Application of hyperspectral imaging and chemometrics for variety classification of maize seeds

Hyperspectral imaging provides an effective way for seed variety classification for assessing variety purity and increasing crop yield.

In vitro antiviral effects of Peganum harmala seed extract and its total alkaloids against Influenza virus

This research was aimed to evaluate the in vitro antiviral effect and the mechanism of the effect of Peganum. harmala seeds extract against influenza A virus infection using Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. In this research, ethyl alcohol extract of P. harmala seeds and its total alkaloids was prepared. The potential antiviral activity of the extract and its total alkaloids against influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1; PR8) virus was assessed. The mode of action of the extract to inhibit influenza replication was investigated using virucidal activity, hemagglutination inhibition assay, time of addition assays, RNA replication, western blot analysis and RNA polymerase blocking assay. The crud extract of P. harmala seed and its total alkaloids showed the best inhibitory effect against influenza A virus replication in MDCK cells using MTT assay, TCID₅₀ method and hemagglutination assay. Our results indicated that the extract inhibits viral RNA replication and viral polymerase activity but did not effect on hemagglutination inhibition and virucidal activity. This study showed that, in vitro antiviral activity of P. harmala seed extract against influenza virus is most probably associated with inhibiting viral RNA transcription. Therefore, this extract and its total alkaloid should be further characterized to be developed as anti-influenza A virus agent.

Anti-amnesic effect of extract and alkaloid fraction from aerial parts of Peganum harmala on scopolamine-induced memory deficits in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Aerial parts of Peganum harmala Linn (APP) is used as traditional medical herb for treatment of forgetfulness in Uighur medicine in China. But, the active ingredients and underlying mechanisms are unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was undertaken to investigate the improvement effects of extract and alkaloid fraction from APP on scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction and to elucidate their underlying mechanisms of action, and to support its folk use with scientific evidence, and lay a foundation for its further researches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activities of extract (EXT), alkaloid fraction (ALK) and flavonoid fraction (FLA) from APP were evaluated in normal male C57BL/6 mice. The anti-amnesic effects of EXT and ALK from APP were measured in scopolamine-induced memory deficits mice by the Morris water maze (MWM) tasks. The levels of biomarkers, enzyme activity and protein expression of cholinergic system were determined in brain tissues.

RESULTS

The AChE activity was significantly decreased and the content of neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) was significantly increased in normal mice cortex and hippocampus by treatment with donepezil at dosage of 8mg/kg, EXT at dosages of 183, 550, 1650mg/kg and ALK at dosages of 10, 30, 90mg/kg (P<0.05), and the AChE activity and the content of ACh were not significantly changed in cortex and hippocampus after treatment with FLA at dosages of 10, 30, 90mg/kg (P>0.05). In the MWM task, scopolamine-induced a decrease in both the swimming time within the target zone and the number of crossings where the platform had been placed were significantly reversed by treatment with EXT at dosages of 550, 1650mg/kg and ALK at dosages of 30, 90mg/kg (P<0.05). Moreover, the activity and protein expression of AChE was significantly decreased and the content of neurotransmitter ACh was significantly increased in cerebral cortex of scopolamine-induced mice by treatment with EXT at dosages of 183, 550, 1650mg/kg and ALK at dosages of 10, 30, 90mg/kg (P<0.05), compared with scopolamine-treated group.

CONCLUSIONS

EXT and ALK from APP exert beneficial effect on learning and memory processes in mice with scopolamine-induced memory impairment. APP is an effective traditional folk medicine and the ALK fraction is proved to be the main effective components for the treatment of forgetfulness. The ALK may be valuable source for lead compounds discovery and drug development for treatment of memory impairment such as in Alzheimer's disease.

A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of the genus Peganum

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The plants of the genus Peganum have a long history as a Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of cough, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, jaundice, colic, lumbago, and many other human ailments. Additionally, the plants can be used as an amulet against evil-eye, dye and so on, which have become increasingly popular in Asia, Iran, Northwest India, and North Africa.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present paper reviewed the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, analytical methods, biological activities, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, and drug interaction of the genus Peganum in order to assess the ethnopharmacological use and to explore therapeutic potentials and future opportunities for research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on studies of the genus Peganum was gathered via the Internet (using Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, Elsevier, ACS, Pudmed, Web of Science, CNKI and EMBASE) and libraries. Additionally, information was also obtained from some local books, PhD and MS's dissertations.

RESULTS

The genus Peganum has played an important role in traditional Chinese medicine. The main bioactive metabolites of the genus include alkaloids, flavonoids, volatile oils, etc. Scientific studies on extracts and formulations revealed a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase inhibitory activities, antitumor, anti-hypertension, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, insecticidal, antiparasidal, anti-leishmaniasis, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on this review, there is some evidence for extracts' pharmacological effects on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, cancer, diabetes, hypertension. Some indications from ethnomedicine have been confirmed by pharmacological effects, such as the cholinesterase, monoamine oxidase and DNA topoisomerase inhibitory activities, hypoglycemic and vasodilation effects of this genus. The available literature showed that most of the activities of the genus Peganum can be attributed to the active alkaloids. Data regarding many aspects of the genus such as mechanisms of actions, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, potential drug interactions with standard-of-care medications is still limited which call for additional studies particularly in humans. Further assessments and clinical trials should be performed before it can be integrated into medicinal practices.

In vivo evaluation of the antitussive, expectorant and bronchodilating effects of extract and fractions from aerial parts of Peganum harmala linn

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Aerial parts of Peganum harmala Linn (APP) is used as traditional medical herb in Uighur medicine in China, and it is traditionally used for treatment of cough and asthma.The aim of the present study is to evaluate the antitussive, expectorant and bronchodilating effects of extract and fractions (alkaloids and flavonoids) from APP, and to support its folk use with scientific evidence, and lay a foundation for its further researches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

APP was extracted with 50% ethanol by reflux, extracts were concentrated in vacuum to afford total extract of APP (EXT). EXT was separated to provide alkaloid fraction (ALK) and flavonoid fraction (FLA) by macroporous resin. Antitussive evaluations were carried out with cough models in mice and guinea pigs induced by ammonia liquor, capsaicin, and citric acid. Phenol red secretion experiments in mice were performed to evaluate the expectorant activity. Bronchodilating activities were evaluated with a bronchoconstrictive challenge induced by acetylcholine chloride and histamine in guinea pigs.

RESULTS

In all the three antitussive tests, the EXT and ALK could significantly inhibit the frequency of cough, and prolong the cough latent period in animals. High dose of EXT (1650 mg/kg) and ALK (90 mg/kg) in mice and in guinea pigs created therapeutic activities as good as that of codeine phosphate (30 mg/kg). EXT could significantly increase phenol red secretion in mice for 0.64, 1.08 and 1.29 fold averagely at dosages of 183, 550, and 1650 mg/kg, ALK for 0.63, 0.96, 1.06 fold averagely at dosages of 10, 30, and 90 mg/kg, and ammonium chloride (1500 mg/kg, standard expectorant drug) for 0.97 fold, comparing with control group. Aminophylline could dramatically prolong the preconvulsive time for 162.28% in guinea pigs, EXT for 67.34%, 101.96% and 138.00% at dosages of 183, 550, and 1650 mg/kg, ALK for 55.47%, 97.74% and 126.77% at dosages of 10, 30, and 90 mg/kg, and FLA for 84.69%, 95.94% and 154.52% at dosages of 10, 30, and 90 mg/kg, comparing with pretreatment.

CONCLUSIONS

APP is an effective traditional folk medicine for the treatment of cough with potent antitussive, expectorant and bronchodilating activities. The alkaloid fraction is proved to be the most effective components of APP. The alkaloids from APP may be valuable lead compounds for drug development of respiratory diseases.

Discovery of novel plastid phenylalanine (trnF) pseudogenes defines a distinctive clade in Solanaceae

BACKGROUND

The plastome of embryophytes is known for its high degree of conservation in size, structure, gene content and linear order of genes. The duplication of entire tRNA genes or their arrangement in a tandem array composed by multiple pseudogene copies is extremely rare in the plastome. Pseudogene repeats of the trnF gene have rarely been described from the chloroplast genome of angiosperms.

FINDINGS

We report the discovery of duplicated copies of the original phenylalanine (trnFGAA) gene in Solanaceae that are specific to a larger clade within the Solanoideae subfamily. The pseudogene copies are composed of several highly structured motifs that are partial residues or entire parts of the anticodon, T- and D-domains of the original trnF gene.

CONCLUSIONS

The Pseudosolanoid clade consists of 29 genera and includes many economically important plants such as potato, tomato, eggplant and pepper.

Main alkaloids of Peganum harmala L. and their different effects on dicot and monocot crops

Alkaloids with allelopathic activity are not as well-known as other allelochemicals. Our study revealed that total alkaloids from seeds of the medicinal plant Peganum harmala L. possessed significant growth inhibitory effect on four treated plants, with dicot plants (lettuce and amaranth) being more sensitive than the tested monocot plants (wheat and ryegrass). Further investigation led to the isolation of harmaline and harmine as the main active ingredients in the total alkaloids of P. harmala seeds. Harmaline exerted potent inhibitory effects on seedling growth of treated plants, especially dicots, inhibiting root elongation of lettuce and amaranth by 31% and 47% at a very low concentration (5 µg/mL), whereas harmine exhibited much weaker non-selective inhibitory effect on the plants. Considering the high yield and poor utilization of P. harmala in China, we anticipate that this plant could be exploited as an alternative weed management tool in the future.