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Wacewicz S, Perea-García JO, Lewandowski Z, Danel DP. The adaptive significance of human scleral brightness: an experimental study. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20261. [PMID: 36424405 PMCID: PMC9691750 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24403-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Homogeneously depigmented sclerae have long been proposed to be uniquely human-an adaptation to enable cooperative behaviour by facilitating interpersonal coordination through gaze following. However, recent evidence has shown that deeply pigmented sclerae also afford gaze following if surrounding a bright iris. Furthermore, while current scleral depigmentation is clearly adaptive in modern humans, it is less clear how the evolutionarily intermediate stages of scleral pigmentation may have been adaptive. In sum, it is unclear why scleral depigmentation became the norm in humans, while not so in sister species like chimpanzees, or why some extant species display intermediate degrees of pigmentation (as our ancestors presumably did at some point). We created realistic facial images of 20 individually distinct hominins with diverse facial morphologies, each face in the (i) humanlike bright sclera and (ii) generalised apelike dark sclera version. Participants in two online studies rated the bright-sclera hominins as younger, healthier, more attractive and trustworthy, but less aggressive than the dark-sclera hominins. Our results support the idea that the appearance of more depigmented sclerae promoted perceived traits that fostered trust, increasing fitness for those individuals and resulting in depigmentation as a fixed trait in extant humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slawomir Wacewicz
- grid.5374.50000 0001 0943 6490Center for Language Evolution Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| | - Juan Olvido Perea-García
- grid.5132.50000 0001 2312 1970The Cognitive Psychology Unit, Faculty of Social Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Zdzisław Lewandowski
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Human Biology, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Dariusz P. Danel
- grid.413454.30000 0001 1958 0162Department of Anthropology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
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2
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Kramer SS, Russell R. A Novel Human Sex Difference: Male Sclera Are Redder and Yellower than Female Sclera. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:2733-2740. [PMID: 35507123 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-022-02304-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In a seminal study, Kobayashi and Kohshima (1997) found that the human sclera-the white of the eye-is unique among primates for its whitish color, and subsequent work has supported the notion that this coloration underlies the human ability to gaze follow. Kobayashi and Kohshima also claimed that there is no significant sex difference in sclera color, though no data were presented to support the claim. We investigated sclera color in a standardized sample of faces varying in age and sex, presenting the first data comparing male and female sclera color. Our data support the claim that indeed there is a sex difference in sclera color, with male sclera being yellower and redder than female sclera. We also replicated earlier findings that female sclera vary in color across the adult lifespan, with older sclera appearing yellower, redder, and slightly darker than younger sclera, and we extended these findings to male sclera. Finally, in two experiments we found evidence that people use sclera color as a cue for making judgements of facial femininity or masculinity. When sclera were manipulated to appear redder and yellower, faces were perceived as more masculine, but were perceived as more feminine when sclera were manipulated to appear less red and yellow. Though people are typically unaware of the sex difference in sclera color, these findings suggest that people nevertheless use the difference as a visual cue when perceiving sex-related traits from the face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah S Kramer
- Department of Psychology, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA, 17325, USA
| | - Richard Russell
- Department of Psychology, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA, 17325, USA.
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3
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Yorzinski JL, Thorstenson CA, Nguyen TP. Sclera and Iris Color Interact to Influence Gaze Perception. Front Psychol 2021; 12:632616. [PMID: 33776853 PMCID: PMC7989964 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.632616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The white sclera is important in facilitating gaze perception in humans. Iris color may likewise influence gaze perception but no previous studies have directly assessed its effect. We therefore examined how the interaction between sclera and iris color influences human gaze perception. We recorded the eye movements of human participants as they performed a visual search task with human faces exhibiting directed or averted gaze. The faces either exhibited light or dark irises. In addition, the faces had sclera that were depigmented (white) or pigmented (matched the color of the iris). We found that participants were quick and accurate in evaluating gaze regardless of iris color in faces with depigmented sclera. When the sclera were pigmented, participants were slower to evaluate the gaze of faces with both light and dark irises but these effects were most pronounced in the faces with dark irises. Furthermore, participants were generally less accurate in assessing faces with pigmented sclera when the irises were dark rather than light. Our results suggest that depigmented sclera are especially important for gaze perception in faces with dark irises. Because depigmented sclera likely evolved at a time when ancestral humans exhibited dark irises, the depigmented sclera may have been crucial for efficient and accurate gaze perception in ancestral humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Yorzinski
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Christopher A Thorstenson
- Department of Psychology and Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Trezze P Nguyen
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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4
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Krivan SJ, Thomas NA. A Call for the Empirical Investigation of Tear Stimuli. Front Psychol 2020; 11:52. [PMID: 32082220 PMCID: PMC7005069 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Emotional crying is a uniquely human behavior, which typically elicits helping and empathic responses from observers. However, tears can also be used to deceive. “Crocodile tears” are insincere tears used to manipulate the observer and foster prosocial responses. The ability to discriminate between genuine and fabricated emotional displays is critical to social functioning. When insincere emotional displays are detected, they are most often met with backlash. Conversely, genuine displays foster prosocial responses. However, the majority of crying research conducted to date has used posed stimuli featuring artificial tears. As such it is yet to be determined how the artificial nature of these displays impacts person perception. Throughout this article, we discuss the necessity for empirical investigation of the differences (or similarities) in responses to posed and genuine tearful expressions. We will explore the recent adoption of genuine stimuli in emotion research and review the existing research using tear stimuli. We conclude by offering suggestions and considerations for future advancement of the emotional crying field through investigation of both posed and genuine tear stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Krivan
- Department of Psychology, Applied Attention and Perceptual Processing Laboratory, College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia.,Applied Attention and Perceptual Processing Laboratory, School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Nicole A Thomas
- Applied Attention and Perceptual Processing Laboratory, School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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5
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Social Structure Facilitated the Evolution of Care-giving as a Strategy for Disease Control in the Human Lineage. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13997. [PMID: 30262928 PMCID: PMC6160448 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31568-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are the only species to have evolved cooperative care-giving as a strategy for disease control. A synthesis of evidence from the fossil record, paleogenomics, human ecology, and disease transmission models, suggests that care-giving for the diseased evolved as part of the unique suite of cognitive and socio-cultural specializations that are attributed to the genus Homo. Here we demonstrate that the evolution of hominin social structure enabled the evolution of care-giving for the diseased. Using agent-based modeling, we simulate the evolution of care-giving in hominin networks derived from a basal primate social system and the three leading hypotheses of ancestral human social organization, each of which would have had to deal with the elevated disease spread associated with care-giving. We show that (1) care-giving is an evolutionarily stable strategy in kin-based cooperatively breeding groups, (2) care-giving can become established in small, low density groups, similar to communities that existed before the increases in community size and density that are associated with the advent of agriculture in the Neolithic, and (3) once established, care-giving became a successful method of disease control across social systems, even as community sizes and densities increased. We conclude that care-giving enabled hominins to suppress disease spread as social complexity, and thus socially-transmitted disease risk, increased.
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Brown M, Sacco DF. Put a (Limbal) Ring on It: Women Perceive Men's Limbal Rings as a Health Cue in Short-Term Mating Domains. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2017; 44:80-91. [PMID: 28978250 DOI: 10.1177/0146167217733072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Limbal rings are dark annuli encircling the iris that fluctuate in visibility based on health and age. Research also indicates their presence augments facial attractiveness. Given individuals' prioritization of health cues in short-term mates, those with limbal rings may be implicated as ideal short-term mates. Three studies tested whether limbal rings serve as veridical health cues, specifically the extent to which this cue enhances a person's value as a short-term mating partner. In Study 1, targets with limbal rings were rated as healthier, an effect that was stronger for female participants and male targets. In Study 2, temporally activated short-term mating motives led women to report a heightened preference for targets with limbal rings. In Study 3, women rated targets with limbal rings as more desirable short-term mates. Results provide evidence for limbal rings as veridical cues to health, particularly in relevant mating domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitch Brown
- 1 The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, USA
| | - Donald F Sacco
- 1 The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, USA
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7
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Kessler SE, Bonnell TR, Byrne RW, Chapman CA. Selection to outsmart the germs: The evolution of disease recognition and social cognition. J Hum Evol 2017. [PMID: 28622934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of providing care to diseased conspecifics must have been a turning point during the evolution of hominin sociality. On a population level, care may have minimized the costs of socially transmitted diseases at a time of increasing social complexity, although individual care-givers probably incurred increased transmission risks. We propose that care-giving likely originated within kin networks, where the costs may have been balanced by fitness increases obtained through caring for ill kin. We test a novel hypothesis of hominin cognitive evolution in which disease may have selected for the cognitive ability to recognize when a conspecific is infected. Because diseases may produce symptoms that are likely detectable via the perceptual-cognitive pathways integral to social cognition, we suggest that disease recognition and social cognition may have evolved together. Using agent-based modeling, we test 1) under what conditions disease can select for increasing disease recognition and care-giving among kin, 2) whether providing care produces greater selection for cognition than an avoidance strategy, and 3) whether care-giving alters the progression of the disease through the population. The greatest selection was produced by diseases with lower risks to the care-giver and prevalences low enough not to disrupt the kin networks. When care-giving and avoidance strategies were compared, only care-giving reduced the severity of the disease outbreaks and subsequent population crashes. The greatest selection for increased cognitive abilities occurred early in the model runs when the outbreaks and population crashes were most severe. Therefore, over the course of human evolution, repeated introductions of novel diseases into naïve populations could have produced sustained selection for increased disease recognition and care-giving behavior, leading to the evolution of increased cognition, social complexity, and, eventually, medical care in humans. Finally, we lay out predictions derived from our disease recognition hypothesis that we encourage paleoanthropologists, bioarchaeologists, primatologists, and paleogeneticists to test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon E Kessler
- Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Canada; Durham University, Department of Anthropology, UK.
| | | | - Richard W Byrne
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, UK
| | - Colin A Chapman
- Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Canada; Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, USA
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Perea García JO, Grenzner T, Hešková G, Mitkidis P. Not everything is blue or brown: Quantification of ocular coloration in psychological research beyond dichotomous categorizations. Commun Integr Biol 2016; 10:e1264545. [PMID: 28289487 PMCID: PMC5333518 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2016.1264545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 11/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The notion that phenomenologically observable differences in the human eye are correlated with behavioral tendencies (other than gaze-following) has been addressed poorly in the psychological literature. Most notably, the proposed correlations are based on an arbitrary categorization in discrete categories of the continuous variability across various traits that could be contributing to individual eye morphologies. We review the relevant literature and assume a view of human eyes as sign stimuli, identifying the relative contrast between the iridal and scleral areas as the main contributor to the strength of the signal. Based on this view, we present a new method for the precise quantification of the relative luminosity of the iris (RLI) and briefly discuss its potential applications in psychological research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Panagiotis Mitkidis
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Center for Advanced Hindsight, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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9
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Deschênes J, Blondeau J. Besifloxacin in the management of bacterial infections of the ocular surface. Can J Ophthalmol 2016; 50:184-91. [PMID: 26040217 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2014.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Acute bacterial conjunctivitis is a common infection of the ocular surface. Increasing rates of bacterial resistance have prompted the development of new antibiotics with improved activity against the bacterial species most often found in this disease. Besifloxacin is the first topical chlorofluoroquinolone developed solely for ophthalmic use. Studies have attested to its in vitro potency against a broad range of bacteria, as well as its efficacy in clinical studies of bacterial conjunctivitis when dosed 2 or 3 times a day. This review provides an up-to-date summary of studies on causative pathogens in acute bacterial conjunctivitis; recent geographic trends in bacterial resistance among ocular pathogens, including that of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; the efficacy of besifloxacin in preclinical and clinical studies; its safety; and the role of besifloxacin in combating resistant strains. Further, this review provides a brief update on bacterial keratitis, causative pathogens, the development of resistance among those pathogens, and the potential role of besifloxacin in the treatment of bacterial keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph Blondeau
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Microbiology and Immunology; Ophthalmology, Royal University Hospital and University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK
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10
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Kret ME. Emotional expressions beyond facial muscle actions. A call for studying autonomic signals and their impact on social perception. Front Psychol 2015; 6:711. [PMID: 26074855 PMCID: PMC4443639 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are well adapted to quickly recognize and adequately respond to another’s emotions. Different theories propose that mimicry of emotional expressions (facial or otherwise) mechanistically underlies, or at least facilitates, these swift adaptive reactions. When people unconsciously mimic their interaction partner’s expressions of emotion, they come to feel reflections of those companions’ emotions, which in turn influence the observer’s own emotional and empathic behavior. The majority of research has focused on facial actions as expressions of emotion. However, the fact that emotions are not just expressed by facial muscles alone is often still ignored in emotion perception research. In this article, I therefore argue for a broader exploration of emotion signals from sources beyond the face muscles that are more automatic and difficult to control. Specifically, I will focus on the perception of implicit sources such as gaze and tears and autonomic responses such as pupil-dilation, eyeblinks and blushing that are subtle yet visible to observers and because they can hardly be controlled or regulated by the sender, provide important “veridical” information. Recently, more research is emerging about the mimicry of these subtle affective signals including pupil-mimicry. I will here review this literature and suggest avenues for future research that will eventually lead to a better comprehension of how these signals help in making social judgments and understand each other’s emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariska E Kret
- Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition Center Amsterdam, Netherlands
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11
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Mayhew JA, Gómez JC. Gorillas with white sclera: A naturally occurring variation in a morphological trait linked to social cognitive functions. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:869-77. [PMID: 25846121 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human eye morphology is considered unique among the primates in that humans possess larger width/height ratios (WHR), expose a greater amount of visible sclera (SSI; width of exposed eyeball/width of visible iris), and critically, have a white sclera due to a lack of pigmentation. White sclera in humans amplifies gaze direction, whereas the all-dark eyes of apes are hypothesized to conceal gaze from others. This study examines WHR and SSI in humans (N = 13) and gorillas (N = 85) engaged in direct and averted gazes and introduces a qualitative assessment of sclera color to evaluate variations in sclera pigmentation. The results confirm previous findings that humans possess a larger WHR than gorillas but indicate that humans and gorillas display similar amounts of visible sclera. Additionally, 72% (N = 124) of gorilla eyes in this sample deviated from the assumed all-dark eye condition. This questions whether gaze camouflage is the primary function of darkened sclera in non-human primates or whether other functional roles can be ascribed to the sclera, light or dark. We argue that white sclera evolved to amplify direct gazes in humans, which would have played a significant role in the development of ostensive communication, which is communication that both shows something and shows the intention to show something. We conclude that the horizontal elongation of the human eye, rather than sclera color, more reliably distinguishes human from great ape eyes, represented here by gorillas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Mayhew
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and the Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom.,Anthropology and Museum Studies, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington
| | - Juan-Carlos Gómez
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and the Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
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12
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Provine RR, Cabrera MO, Nave-Blodgett J. Binocular Symmetry/Asymmetry of Scleral Redness as a Cue for Sadness, Healthiness, and Attractiveness in Humans. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/147470491301100411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Among primates, only humans have the white sclerae that provide the ground necessary to display their own color and that of the overlying conjunctiva. Scleral color, primarily redness, provides cues of socially and biologically significant information about an individual. The present study examines the effect of the asymmetry of binocular scleral redness on perceived sadness, healthiness, and attractiveness by contrasting ratings of images of individuals who had one, both, or neither sclera reddened by digital editing. Building upon previous research, this study further defines the details of the scleral color display and contributes to the more general issue of facial and body symmetry, predictors of phenotypic condition and genotypic quality that are of interest to evolutionary theorists. Individuals with binocular and monocular redness were rated as sadder, less healthy, and less attractive than those with untinted control sclerae, with ratings corresponding to the degree of redness or whiteness. Bilaterally symmetrical (binocular) scleral redness or whiteness provided anchorage points for ratings, with ratings for bilaterally asymmetrical (monocular) redness or whiteness falling between them; there was no unique effect of asymmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R. Provine
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Marcello O. Cabrera
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jessica Nave-Blodgett
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Provine RR, Nave-Blodgett J, Cabrera MO. The Emotional Eye: Red Sclera as a Uniquely Human Cue of Emotion. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert R. Provine
- Department of Psychology; University of Maryland; Baltimore County, Baltimore; MD; USA
| | - Jessica Nave-Blodgett
- Department of Psychology; University of Maryland; Baltimore County, Baltimore; MD; USA
| | - Marcello O. Cabrera
- Department of Psychology; University of Maryland; Baltimore County, Baltimore; MD; USA
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14
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Provine RR, Cabrera MO, Nave-Blodgett J. Red, Yellow, and Super-White Sclera. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2013; 24:126-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s12110-013-9168-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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