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Yang P, Bi Q, Li Y, Liao J, Ding Y, Huang D, Luo X, Huang Y, Yao C, Zhang J, Wei W, Li Z, Meng J, Guo D. Identification of Five Gelatins Based on Marker Peptides from Type I Collagen by Mass Spectrum in Multiple Reaction Monitoring Mode. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:5851-5860. [PMID: 37010496 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c00151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a novel pseudo-targeted peptidomics strategy, integrating the transition list generated by an in-house software (Pep-MRMer) and the retention time transfer by high-abundance ion-based retention time calibration (HAI-RT-cal), was developed to screen marker peptides of gelatins from five closely related animal species, including porcine, bovine, horse, mule, and donkey. Five marker peptides were screened from the molecular phenotypic differences of type I collagen. Furthermore, a simple and robust 10 min multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) method was established and performed well in distinguishing different gelatins, particularly in discerning horse-hide gelatin (HHG) and mule-hide gelatin (MHG) from donkey-hide gelatin (DHG). The market investigation revealed the serious adulteration of DHG. Meantime, the pseudo-targeted peptidomics could be used to screen marker peptides of other gelatin foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peilei Yang
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Qirui Bi
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Li
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingmei Liao
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Yelin Ding
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongdong Huang
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxiao Luo
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Huang
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Changliang Yao
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianqing Zhang
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenlong Wei
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenwei Li
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiang Meng
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Dean Guo
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Research Center of TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
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Zhang J, Wu M, Ma Z, Zhang Y, Cao H. Species-specific identification of donkey-hide gelatin and its adulterants using marker peptides. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273021. [PMID: 35960756 PMCID: PMC9374224 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Donkey-hide gelatin is an important traditional Chinese medicine made from donkey skin. Despite decades of effort, identifying the animal materials (donkeys, horses, cattle and pigs) in donkey-hide gelatin remains challenging. In our study, we aimed to identify marker peptides of donkey-hide gelatin and its adulterants and develop a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method to identify them. Theoretical marker peptides of four animals (donkeys, horses, cattle and pigs) were predicted and verified by proteomic experiments, and 12 species-specific marker peptides from donkey-hide gelatin and its adulterants were identified. One marker peptide for each gelatin was selected to develop the liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. The applicability of the method was evaluated by investigating homemade mixed gelatin samples and commercial donkey-hide gelatin products. Using the liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method, the addition of cattle-hide gelatin and pig-hide gelatin to donkey-hide gelatin could be detected at a level of 0.1%. Horse-hide gelatin was detected when added at a level of 0.5%. Among 18 batches of donkey-hide gelatin products, nine were identified as authentic, and eight of the remaining samples were suspected to be adulterated with horse materials. These results provide both a practical method to control the quality of donkey-hide gelatin and a good reference for quality evaluations of other medicinal materials and foods containing protein components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinju Zhang
- College of Pharmacy, Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Lingnan (Southern China), National Engineering Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine Lingnan Resources Branch, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Informatization (2021B1212040007), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Menghua Wu
- College of Pharmacy, Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Lingnan (Southern China), National Engineering Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine Lingnan Resources Branch, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Informatization (2021B1212040007), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiguo Ma
- College of Pharmacy, Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Lingnan (Southern China), National Engineering Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine Lingnan Resources Branch, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Informatization (2021B1212040007), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- College of Pharmacy, Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Lingnan (Southern China), National Engineering Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine Lingnan Resources Branch, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Informatization (2021B1212040007), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (HC)
| | - Hui Cao
- College of Pharmacy, Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Lingnan (Southern China), National Engineering Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine Lingnan Resources Branch, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Informatization (2021B1212040007), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (HC)
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Species assignment in forensics and the challenge of hybrids. Forensic Sci Int Genet 2020; 48:102333. [PMID: 32615399 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Forensic identification of species is in growing demand, particularly from law enforcement authorities in the areas of wildlife, fisheries and hunting as well as food authentication. Within the non-human forensic genetics expanding applications' field, the major current difficulties result from the lack of standards and genetic databases as well as the poor or absent taxonomic definition of several groups. Here we focus on a forensically important and overlooked problem in species identification: the exclusive use of uniparental markers, a common practice in current genetic barcoding methodologies, may lead to incorrect or impossible assignment whenever hybrids can occur (frequently, not only in domesticates, but also in the wild). For example, if one of these cases involves a mammal, and mitochondrial DNA alone is used (which in instances may be the only type of DNA sequence available in databases), the sample will be wrongfully assigned to the female parental species, completely missing the detection of a possible hybrid animal. The importance of this issue in the forensic contributions to food authentication, wildlife and conservation genetics is analyzed. We present a cautionary guidance on the forensic reporting of results avoiding this error.
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Sheu SC, Huang JY, Lien YY, Lee MS. Specific, sensitive and rapid authentication of donkey-hide gelatine ( Colla corii asini) in processed food using an isothermal nucleic acid amplification assay. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020; 57:2877-2883. [PMID: 32624593 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-020-04319-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Donkey-hide gelatine (DHG) is a well-known, animal-derived traditional Chinese medicine material called Colla corii asini (known in Chinese as "E'jiao"). Because DHG is claimed to have properties that are beneficial to health, its consumption has increased, but its production has decreased. Thus, the incidence of DHG adulteration has become increasingly serious. In this study, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was developed for the authentication of DHG. Identification of donkey DNA from DHG was performed specifically and rapidly within one hour by LAMP primers. Moreover, the sensitivity of LAMP in authenticating DHG was 10-3 ng, which revealed a 105-fold higher sensitivity than that of conventional PCR. The relative detection limit was 0.1% DHG in the adulterants, including gelatines of horse, cow, pork, goat, sheep or chicken origins. When genomic DNAs extracted from heat-treated DHG samples, including boiling or autoclaving for 40 min, were used as templates, DHG detection by LAMP was unchanged and reproducible. In conclusion, the LAMP assay established herein could potentially be applied for the authentication of DHG and DHG-related products in herbal or food markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyang-Chwen Sheu
- Department of Food Science, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, No. 1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, 91201 Pingtung Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jhong-Yong Huang
- Department of Food Science, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, No. 1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, 91201 Pingtung Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yi-Yang Lien
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, No. 1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, 91201 Pingtung Taiwan, ROC.,Research Center of Animal Biologics, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, No. 1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung Taiwan, ROC
| | - Meng-Shiou Lee
- Department of Chinese Pharmaceutical Science and Chinese Medicine Resources, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402 Taiwan, ROC
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Balhorn R, Steger K, Bergmann M, Schuppe HC, Neuhauser S, Balhorn MC. New monoclonal antibodies specific for mammalian protamines P1 and P2. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2018; 64:424-447. [DOI: 10.1080/19396368.2018.1510063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rod Balhorn
- Briar Patch Biosciences LLC, Livermore, CA, USA
| | - Klaus Steger
- Department of Urology, Pediatric Urology and Andrology, Section Molecular Andrology, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Martin Bergmann
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Giessen, Germany
| | | | - Stefanie Neuhauser
- Pferdezentrum Bad Saarow, Veterinary Faculty of the University, Berlin, Germany
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Zuo HL, Zhao J, Wang YT, Xia ZN, Hu YJ, Yang FQ. Identification of the Adulterated Asini Corii Colla with Cytochrome c Oxidase Subunit I Gene-based Polymerase Chain Reaction. Pharmacognosy Res 2017; 9:313-318. [PMID: 29263623 PMCID: PMC5717782 DOI: 10.4103/pr.pr_33_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Asini Corii Colla (ACC) (namely donkey hide gelatin, E'jiao in Chinese) was one of the most valuable tonic traditional Chinese medicines which is an infallible remedy to promote hematopoiesis. It should be produced by fresh or dried donkey hide according to Chinese Pharmacopeia (2015 edition) with a long-time decoction, while as donkey and horse (or mule) all belong to equids so their hides or their hide gelatins are share much in common, that cause the difficult in distinguishing raw materials donkey hide from horse/mule hide for manufacturer, and the challenge in the quality evaluation of ACC for regulatory authority to identify the adulterated with horse hide. Objective: To establish an effective quality evaluation methods for ACC focused on the qualitative-based identification of the raw material's authenticity, mainly to identify the species origin of the gelatins. Materials and Methods: DNA extracted from (1) Raw materials (hides of donkey, horse, mule, bovine and pig); (2) Five hide-glues (bovine, pig, donkey, horse and mule hide-glue); (3) 11 batches of ACC commercial products made by different manufactures from local drug stores. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method with newly designed horse-specific primers I and primer pair II. Results: Use the primer pair I, a 234 bp target product could be amplified sensitively from the DNA sample of horse/mule adulterated commercial ACC products, though the DNA in commercial products is severely degraded. A 219 bp product could be amplified specifically from the DNA sample of horse/mule hide, while the results were all negative for the DNA templates of donkey hide, its gelatin and ACC products without adulteration. Conclusion: The developed PCR method based on primer I and II provide an effective approach to identify the species origin of highly processed product ACC (primer pair I) as well as to distinguish the raw material donkey hide (primer pair II), which might enlighten a new strategy to the Quality Evaluation of ACC. SUMMARY Though the quality of commercial Asini Corii Colla (ACC) products varies greatly and produce with nondonkey hide was one the most common adulteration, the effective method to constrain such adulteration remains to be established The gelatins made by donkey, horse, bovine, pig, mule shares much in common with each other, not only in contents of amino acids but also the profiles of protein in sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, gel filtration chromatography and two-dimensional electrophoresis The adulteration in ACC by using horse/mule hide, which is most difficult to detect, could be identified by Polymerase chain reaction methods with newly designed horse/mule-specific primer.
Abbreviations Used: ACC: Asini Corii Colla; TCMs: Traditional Chinese Medicines; SDS-PAGE: Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; IEF: Isoelectric focusing; GFC: Gel filtration chromatography; 2-DE: Two-dimensional electrophoresis; PCR: Polymerase chain reaction
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Li Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, P. R. China
| | - Jie Zhao
- College of Taiji Pharmaceutical and Medical, Chongqing 400020, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, P. R. China
| | - Zhi-Ning Xia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, P. R. China
| | - Yuan-Jia Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, P. R. China
| | - Feng-Qing Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, P. R. China
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Han H, Wang A, Liu L, Zhao G, Su J, Wang B, Li Y, Zhang J, Wu B, Sun W, Hu S, Li S, Zhao L, Li X. Testicular Characteristics and the Block to Spermatogenesis in Mature Hinny. ASIAN-AUSTRALASIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2015; 29:793-800. [PMID: 26954128 PMCID: PMC4852245 DOI: 10.5713/ajas.15.0670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Most hinnies (female donkey×male horse) and mules (female horse×male donkey) are sterile with few reports of equine fertile hybrids. The main cause of this sterility is thought to be a meiotic block to spermatogenesis and oogenesis. This study compared the developmental features of the testes and a histological analyses of spermatogenesis in a male hinny with those of a normal, fertile stallion and Jack donkey. Hinny testes showed a thicker tunica albuginea, fewer blood vessels and more connective tissue in the testis parenchyma than those of the stallion and Jack donkey. Although the mean number of seminiferous tubules was significantly higher in stallion and hinny than Jack donkey (p<0.01), the mean proportion of seminiferous tubules was lower in the hinny (p<0.01) which resulted in a smaller diameter of seminiferous tubules. The mean number of spermatogonia and spermatocytes per unit area were significantly lower in hinny testis (p<0.01) and no spermatids or mature spermatozoa cells were found during immunofluorescent analyses. These results indicated that defects in seminiferous tubule development and structure occur in the testis of hinnies. Furthermore, most spermatogonia and spermatocytes cease development in synapsis during mid-meiosis of spermatocytes, which results in a block to spermatogenesis that prevents the formation of spermatids and matured spermatozoa during meiosis in male hinnies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Han
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China
| | - Aihong Wang
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China
| | - Liming Liu
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Gaoping Zhao
- Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Jie Su
- Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Biao Wang
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China
| | - Yunxia Li
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Jindun Zhang
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China
| | - Baojiang Wu
- Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Shuxiang Hu
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Shuyu Li
- Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Lixia Zhao
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
| | - Xihe Li
- Research Center for Animal Genetic Resources of Mongolian Plateau, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot 010021, China.,Inner Mongolia Saikexing Institute of Breeding and Reproductive Biotechnology in Domestic Animal, Huhhot 011517, China
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Millard JT, Chuang E, Lucas JS, Nagy EE, Davis GT. Case-Study Investigation of Equine Maternity via PCR-RFLP: A Biochemistry Laboratory Experiment. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION 2013; 90:10.1021/ed300740r. [PMID: 24363455 PMCID: PMC3867210 DOI: 10.1021/ed300740r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A simple and robust biochemistry laboratory experiment is described that uses restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products to verify the identity of a potentially valuable horse. During the first laboratory period, students purify DNA from equine samples and amplify two loci of mitochondrial DNA. During the second laboratory period, students digest PCR products with restriction enzymes and analyze the fragment sizes through agarose gel electrophoresis. An optional step of validating DNA extracts through realtime PCR can expand the experiment to three weeks. This experiment, which has an engaging and versatile scenario, provides students with exposure to key principles and techniques of molecular biology, bioinformatics, and evolution in a forensic context.
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