Role of cyclic nucleotides in the control of cytosolic Ca2+ levels in vascular endothelial cells

Therapeutic Potential of Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors for Endothelial Dysfunction- Related Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are considered a major health problem worldwide, being the main cause of mortality in developing and developed countries. Endothelial dysfunction, characterized by a decline in nitric oxide production and/or bioavailability, increased oxidative stress, decreased prostacyclin levels, and a reduction of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor is considered an important prognostic indicator of various CVD. Changes in cyclic nucleotides production and/ or signalling, such as guanosine 3', 5'-monophosphate (cGMP) and adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate (cAMP), also accompany many vascular disorders that course with altered endothelial function. Phosphodiesterases (PDE) are metallophosphohydrolases that catalyse cAMP and cGMP hydrolysis, thereby terminating the cyclic nucleotide-dependent signalling. The development of drugs that selectively block the activity of specific PDE families remains of great interest to the research, clinical and pharmaceutical industries. In the present review, we will discuss the effects of PDE inhibitors on CVD related to altered endothelial function, such as atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, stroke, aging and cirrhosis. Multiple evidences suggest that PDEs inhibition represents an attractive medical approach for the treatment of endothelial dysfunction-related diseases. Selective PDE inhibitors, especially PDE3 and PDE5 inhibitors are proposed to increase vascular NO levels by increasing antioxidant status or endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression and activation and to improve the morphological architecture of the endothelial surface. Thereby, selective PDE inhibitors can improve the endothelial function in various CVD, increasing the evidence that these drugs are potential treatment strategies for vascular dysfunction and reinforcing their potential role as an adjuvant in the pharmacotherapy of CVD.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog liraglutide inhibits endothelial cell inflammation through a calcium and AMPK dependent mechanism

Liraglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic used for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Similar to the actions of endogenous GLP-1, liraglutide potentiates the post-prandial release of insulin, inhibits glucagon release and increases satiety. Recent epidemiological studies and clinical trials have suggested that treatment with GLP-1 mimetics may also diminish the risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetic patients. The mechanism responsible for this effect has yet to be determined; however, one possibility is that they might do so by a direct effect on vascular endothelium. Since low grade inflammation of the endothelium is an early event in the pathogenesis of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), we determined the effects of liraglutide on inflammation in cultured human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs). Liraglutide reduced the inflammatory responses to TNFα and LPS stimulation, as evidenced by both reduced protein expression of the adhesion molecules VCAM-1 and E-Selectin, and THP-1 monocyte adhesion. This was found to result from increased cell Ca²⁺ and several molecules sensitive to Ca²⁺ with known anti inflammatory actions in endothelial cells, including CaMKKβ, CaMKI, AMPK, eNOS and CREB. Treatment of the cells with STO-609, a CaMKK inhibitor, diminished both the activation of AMPK, CaMKI and the inhibition of TNFα and LPS-induced monocyte adhesion by liraglutide. Likewise, expression of an shRNA against AMPK nullified the anti-inflammatory effects of liraglutide. The results indicate that liraglutide exerts a strong anti-inflammatory effect on HAECs. They also demonstrate that this is due to its ability to increase intracellular Ca²⁺ and activate CAMKKβ, which in turn activates AMPK.

Basal cGMP regulates the resting pacemaker potential frequency of cultured mouse colonic interstitial cells of Cajal

Cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP) inhibited the generation of pacemaker activity in interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) from the small intestine. However, cGMP role on pacemaker activity in colonic ICCs has not been reported yet. Thus, we investigated the role of cGMP in pacemaker activity regulation by colonic ICCs. We performed a whole-cell patch-clamp and Ca(2+) imaging in cultured ICCs from mouse colon. 1H-[1,2,4]Oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, an inhibitor of guanylate cyclase) increased the pacemaker potential frequency, whereas zaprinast (an inhibitor of phosphodiesterase) and cell-permeable 8-bromo-cGMP decreased the pacemaker potential frequency. KT-5823 (an inhibitor of protein kinase G [PKG]) did not affect the pacemaker potential. L-N(G)-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide [NO] synthase) increased the pacemaker potential frequency, whereas (±)-S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP, a NO donor) decreased the pacemaker potential frequency. Glibenclamide (an ATP-sensitive K(+) channel blocker) did not block the effects of cell-permeable 8-bromo-cGMP and SNAP. Recordings of spontaneous intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]i) oscillations revealed that ODQ and L-NAME increased [Ca(2+)]i oscillations. In contrast, zaprinast, 8-bromo cGMP, and SNAP decreased the [Ca(2+)]i oscillations. Basal cGMP levels regulate the resting pacemaker potential frequency by the alteration on Ca(2+) release via a PKG-independent pathway. Additionally, the endogenous release of NO seems to be responsible maintaining basal cGMP levels in colonic ICCs.

Update on vascular endothelial Ca2+ signalling: A tale of ion channels, pumps and transporters

A monolayer of endothelial cells (ECs) lines the lumen of blood vessels and forms a multifunctional transducing organ that mediates a plethora of cardiovascular processes. The activation of ECs from as state of quiescence is, therefore, regarded among the early events leading to the onset and progression of potentially lethal diseases, such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, brain stroke, and tumor. Intracellular Ca²⁺ signals have long been know to play a central role in the complex network of signaling pathways regulating the endothelial functions. Notably, recent work has outlined how any change in the pattern of expression of endothelial channels, transporters and pumps involved in the modulation of intracellular Ca²⁺ levels may dramatically affect whole body homeostasis. Vascular ECs may react to both mechanical and chemical stimuli by generating a variety of intracellular Ca²⁺ signals, ranging from brief, localized Ca²⁺ pulses to prolonged Ca²⁺ oscillations engulfing the whole cytoplasm. The well-defined spatiotemporal profile of the subcellular Ca²⁺ signals elicited in ECs by specific extracellular inputs depends on the interaction between Ca²⁺ releasing channels, which are located both on the plasma membrane and in a number of intracellular organelles, and Ca²⁺ removing systems. The present article aims to summarize both the past and recent literature in the field to provide a clear-cut picture of our current knowledge on the molecular nature and the role played by the components of the Ca²⁺ machinery in vascular ECs under both physiological and pathological conditions.

Calcium dynamics and signaling in vascular regulation: computational models

Calcium is a universal signaling molecule with a central role in a number of vascular functions including in the regulation of tone and blood flow. Experimentation has provided insights into signaling pathways that lead to or affected by Ca(2+) mobilization in the vasculature. Mathematical modeling offers a systematic approach to the analysis of these mechanisms and can serve as a tool for data interpretation and for guiding new experimental studies. Comprehensive models of calcium dynamics are well advanced for some systems such as the heart. This review summarizes the progress that has been made in modeling Ca(2+) dynamics and signaling in vascular cells. Model simulations show how Ca(2+) signaling emerges as a result of complex, nonlinear interactions that cannot be properly analyzed using only a reductionist's approach. A strategy of integrative modeling in the vasculature is outlined that will allow linking macroscale pathophysiological responses to the underlying cellular mechanisms.

Multiple roles of protein kinase a in arachidonic acid-mediated Ca2+ entry and tumor-derived human endothelial cell migration

We recently showed that arachidonic acid (AA) triggers calcium signals in endothelial cells derived from human breast carcinoma (B-TEC). In particular, AA-dependent Ca(2+) entry is involved in the early steps of tumor angiogenesis in vitro. Here, we investigated the multiple roles of the nitric oxide (NO) and cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (PKA) pathways in AA-mediated Ca(2+) signaling in the same cells. B-TEC stimulation with 5 μmol/L AA resulted in endothelial NO synthase (NOS) phosphorylation at Ser(1177), and NO release was measured with the fluorescent NO-sensitive probe DAR4M-AM. PKA inhibition by the use of the membrane-permeable PKA inhibitory peptide myristoylated PKI(14-22) completely prevented both AA- and NO-induced calcium entry and abolished B-TEC migration promoted by AA. AA-dependent calcium entry and cell migration were significantly affected by both the NOS inhibitor N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester and the NO scavenger 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl 3-oxide, suggesting that NO release is functionally involved in the signaling dependent on AA. Moreover, pretreatment with carboxyamidotriazole, an antiangiogenic compound that interferes with agonist-activated calcium entry, prevented AA-dependent B-TEC motility. Interestingly, even in the absence of AA, enhancement of the cyclic AMP/PKA pathway with the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin evoked a calcium entry dependent on NOS recruitment and NO release. The functional relevance of AA-induced calcium entry could be restricted to tumor-derived endothelial cells (EC) because AA evoked a smaller calcium entry in normal human microvascular ECs compared with B-TECs, and even more importantly, it was unable to promote cell motility in wound healing assay. This evidence opens an intriguing opportunity for differential pharmacologic treatment between normal and tumor-derived human ECs.