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Young JT, Vlasova RM, Howell BR, Knickmeyer RC, Morin E, Kuitchoua KI, Lubach GR, Noel J, Hu X, Shi Y, Caudill G, Alexander AL, Niethammer M, Paule MG, Coe CL, Sanchez M, Styner M. General anaesthesia during infancy reduces white matter micro-organisation in developing rhesus monkeys. Br J Anaesth 2021; 126:845-853. [PMID: 33549320 DOI: 10.1016/j.bja.2020.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-human primates are commonly used in neuroimaging research for which general anaesthesia or sedation is typically required for data acquisition. In this analysis, the cumulative effects of exposure to ketamine, Telazol® (tiletamine and zolazepam), and the inhaled anaesthetic isoflurane on early brain development were evaluated in two independent cohorts of typically developing rhesus macaques. METHODS Diffusion MRI scans were analysed from 43 rhesus macaques (20 females and 23 males) at either 12 or 18 months of age from two separate primate colonies. RESULTS Significant, widespread reductions in fractional anisotropy with corresponding increased axial, mean, and radial diffusivity were observed across the brain as a result of repeated anaesthesia exposures. These effects were dose dependent and remained after accounting for age and sex at time of exposure in a generalised linear model. Decreases of up to 40% in fractional anisotropy were detected in some brain regions. CONCLUSIONS Multiple exposures to commonly used anaesthetics were associated with marked changes in white matter microstructure. This study is amongst the first to examine clinically relevant anaesthesia exposures on the developing primate brain. It will be important to examine if, or to what degree, the maturing brain can recover from these white matter changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey T Young
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Roza M Vlasova
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
| | - Brittany R Howell
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rebecca C Knickmeyer
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Elyse Morin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kaela I Kuitchoua
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gabriele R Lubach
- Harlow Center for Biological Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jean Noel
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Yundi Shi
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Gibson Caudill
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Marc Niethammer
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Merle G Paule
- Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food & Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Christopher L Coe
- Harlow Center for Biological Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Mar Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Martin Styner
- Department of Psychiatry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Miyabe-Nishiwaki T, Kaneko A, Yamanaka A, Maeda N, Suzuki J, Tomonaga M, Matsuzawa T, Muta K, Nishimura R, Yajima I, Eleveld DJ, Absalom AR, Masui K. Propofol infusions using a human target controlled infusion (TCI) pump in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Sci Rep 2021; 11:1214. [PMID: 33441704 PMCID: PMC7806914 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79914-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimpanzees are genetically and physiologically similar to humans. Several pharmacokinetic models of propofol are available and target controlled infusion (TCI) of propofol is established in humans, but not in chimpanzees. The purpose of this study was to investigate if human pharmacokinetic models can accurately predict propofol plasma concentration (Cp) in chimpanzees and if it is feasible to perform TCI in chimpanzees. Ten chimpanzees were anaesthetized for regular veterinary examinations. Propofol was used as an induction or maintenance agent. Blood samples were collected from a catheter in a cephalic vein at 3–7 time points between 1 and 100 min following the propofol bolus and/or infusion in five chimpanzees, or TCI in six chimpanzees. Cp was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. The Marsh, Schnider and Eleveld human pharmacokinetic models were used to predict Cp for each case and we examined the predictive performances of these models using the Varvel criteria Median PE and Median APE. Median PE and Median APE for Marsh, Schnider and Eleveld models were within or close to the acceptable range. A human TCI pump was successfully maintained propofol Cp during general anesthesia in six chimpanzees. Human propofol pharmacokinetic models and TCI pumps can be applied in chimpanzees.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - A Kaneko
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - A Yamanaka
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - N Maeda
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - J Suzuki
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - M Tomonaga
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | | | - K Muta
- Laboratory of Veterinary Surgery, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - R Nishimura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Surgery, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - I Yajima
- Department of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical College Hospital, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - D J Eleveld
- University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - A R Absalom
- University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - K Masui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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Muta K, Miyabe-Nishiwaki T, Masui K, Yajima I, Iizuka T, Kaneko A, Nishimura R. Pharmacokinetics and effects on clinical and physiological parameters following a single bolus dose of propofol in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2020; 44:18-27. [PMID: 32880998 DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were (a) to establish a population pharmacokinetic model and (b) to investigate the clinical and physiological effects of a single bolus dose of propofol in common marmosets. In Study 1, pharmacokinetic analysis was performed in six marmosets under sevoflurane anaesthesia. 8 mg/kg of propofol was administrated at a rate of 4 mg kg-1 min-1 . Blood samples were collected 2, 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120 or 180 min after starting propofol administration. Plasma concentration was measured, and population pharmacokinetic modelling was performed. A two-compartment model was selected as the final model. The population pharmacokinetic parameters were as follows: V1 = 1.14 L, V2 = 77.6 L, CL1 = 0.00182 L/min, CL2 = 0.0461 L/min. In Study 2, clinical and physiological parameters were assessed and recorded every 2 min after 12 mg/kg of propofol was administrated at a rate of 4 mg kg-1 min-1 . Immobilization was sustained for 5 min following propofol administration without apparent bradycardia. While combination of propofol and sevoflurane caused apnoea in Study 1, apnoea was not observed following single administration of propofol in Study 2. These data provide bases for further investigation on intravenous anaesthesia using propofol in common marmosets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanako Muta
- Laboratory of Veterinary Surgery, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takako Miyabe-Nishiwaki
- Center for Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - Kenichi Masui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Isao Yajima
- Department of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical College Hospital, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tomoya Iizuka
- Laboratory of Veterinary Surgery, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akihisa Kaneko
- Center for Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - Ryohei Nishimura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Surgery, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Miyabe-Nishiwaki T, Miwa M, Konoike N, Kaneko A, Ishigami A, Natsume T, MacIntosh AJJ, Nakamura K. Evaluation of anaesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects after intramuscular administration of alfaxalone alone, alfaxalone-ketamine and alfaxalone-butorphanol-medetomidine in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). J Med Primatol 2020; 49:291-299. [PMID: 32654222 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anaesthesia is often required in common marmosets undergoing various procedures. The aim of this study was to evaluate anaesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of alfaxalone, alfaxalone-ketamine and alfaxalone-butorphanol-medetomidine in common marmosets. METHODS The following treatments were repeatedly administered to seven female common marmosets: Treatment A, alfaxalone (12 mg kg-1 ) alone; treatment AK, alfaxalone (1 mg animal-1 ) plus ketamine (2.5 mg animal-1 ); treatment AMB, alfaxalone (4 mg kg-1 ), medetomidine (50 µg kg-1 ) plus butorphanol (0.3 mg kg-1 ); and treatment AMB-Ati, AMB with atipamezole at 45 minutes. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Marmosets became laterally recumbent and unresponsive for approximately 30 minutes in A and AK and for approximately 60 minutes in AMB. The animals showed rapid recovery following atipamezole injection in AMB-Ati. The decrease in heart rate and SpO2 was significantly greater in AMB compared to A and AK. Oxygen supplementation, anaesthetic monitors and atipamezole should be available especially when AMB is administered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miki Miwa
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Naho Konoike
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Akihisa Kaneko
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Akiyo Ishigami
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan
| | | | - Andrew J J MacIntosh
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan.,Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, University Malaysia Sabh, Sabah, Malaysia
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Patel SR, Ballesteros JJ, Ahmed OJ, Huang P, Briscoe J, Eskandar EN, Ishizawa Y. Dynamics of recovery from anaesthesia-induced unconsciousness across primate neocortex. Brain 2020; 143:833-843. [PMID: 32049333 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awaa017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
How the brain recovers from general anaesthesia is poorly understood. Neurocognitive problems during anaesthesia recovery are associated with an increase in morbidity and mortality in patients. We studied intracortical neuronal dynamics during transitions from propofol-induced unconsciousness into consciousness by directly recording local field potentials and single neuron activity in a functionally and anatomically interconnecting somatosensory (S1, S2) and ventral premotor (PMv) network in primates. Macaque monkeys were trained for a behavioural task designed to determine trial-by-trial alertness and neuronal response to tactile and auditory stimulation. We found that neuronal dynamics were dissociated between S1 and higher-order PMv prior to return of consciousness. The return of consciousness was distinguishable by a distinctive return of interregionally coherent beta oscillations and disruption of the slow-delta oscillations. Clustering analysis demonstrated that these state transitions between wakefulness and unconsciousness were rapid and unstable. In contrast, return of pre-anaesthetic task performance was observed with a gradual increase in the coherent beta oscillations. We also found that recovery end points significantly varied intra-individually across sessions, as compared to a rather consistent loss of consciousness time. Recovery of single neuron multisensory responses appeared to be associated with the time of full performance recovery rather than the length of recovery time. Similar to loss of consciousness, return of consciousness was identified with an abrupt shift of dynamics and the regions were dissociated temporarily during the transition. However, the actual dynamics change during return of consciousness is not simply an inverse of loss of consciousness, suggesting a unique process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun R Patel
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, USA
| | - Jesus J Ballesteros
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, USA
| | - Omar J Ahmed
- Departments of Psychology, Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI, USA
| | - Pamela Huang
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Care, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
| | - Jessica Briscoe
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, USA
| | - Emad N Eskandar
- Departments of Neurological Surgery, Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx NY, USA
| | - Yumiko Ishizawa
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, USA
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Shirai T, Yano M, Natsume T, Awaga Y, Itani Y, Hama A, Matsuda A, Takamatsu H. Pharmacologic Modulation of Noxious Stimulus-evoked Brain Activation in Cynomolgus Macaques Observed with Functional Neuroimaging. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE 2019; 59:94-103. [PMID: 31753062 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-18-000143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Maintaining effective analgesia during invasive procedures performed under general anesthesia is important for minimizing postoperative complications and ensuring satisfactory patient wellbeing and recovery. While patients under deep sedation may demonstrate an apparent lack of response to noxious stimulation, areas of the brain related to pain perception may still be activated. Thus, these patients may still experience pain during invasive procedures. The current study used anesthetized or sedated cynomolgus macaques and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess the activation of the parts of the brain involved in pain perception during the application of peripheral noxious stimuli. Noxious pressure applied to the foot resulted in the bilateral activation of secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) and insular cortex (Ins), which are both involved in pain perception, in macaques under either propofol or pentobarbital sedation. No activation of SII/Ins was observed in macaques treated with either isoflurane or a combination of medetomidine, midazolam, and butorphanol. No movement or other reflexes were observed in response to noxious pressure during stimulation under anesthesia or sedation. The current findings show that despite the lack of visible behavioral symptoms of pain during anesthesia or sedation, brain activation suggests the presence of pain depending on the anesthetic agent used. These data suggest that fMRI could be used to noninvasively assess pain and to confirm the analgesic efficacy of currently used anesthetics. By assessing analgesic efficacy, researchers may refine their experiments, and design protocols that improve analgesia under anesthesia.
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Ferraro MAR, Molina CV, Gris VN, Kierulff MCM, Bueno MG, Cortopassi SRG. Early reversal of ketamine/dexmedetomidine chemical immobilization by atipamezole in golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas). J Med Primatol 2019; 48:351-356. [PMID: 31194266 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A smooth and rapid recovery from anesthesia allowing safe release is desirable, especially for wild species. This study describes the clinical effects of the combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine and the partial reversal with atipamezole in golden-headed lion tamarins. METHODS Dexmedetomidine 10 μg kg-1 and ketamine 15 mg kg-1 were administered to 45 golden-headed lion tamarins undergoing vasectomy. Following surgery, animals were assigned to three groups: control (SAL; 0.9% NaCl), atipamezole 20 μg kg-1 (ATI20), and atipamezole 40 μg kg-1 (ATI40). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS All animals presented great scores of sedation and muscle relaxation during the procedure. Recovery in the control group was smooth and uneventful. Salivation, muscle tremors, and head movements were observed in ATI 20 and ATI40. The administration of atipamezole did not change total recovery times (ATI20 69 ± 23 minutes; ATI40 72 ± 45 minutes; SAL 57 ± 23 minutes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario A R Ferraro
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila V Molina
- Department of Pathology, Laboratory of Wildlife Compared Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vanessa N Gris
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria C M Kierulff
- Graduate Program for Tropical Biodiversity, Federal University of Espírito Santo, São Mateus, Brazil.,Pri-Matas for Biodiversity Conservation Institute, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marina Galvão Bueno
- Institutional Program for Biodiversity and Health Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Silvia R G Cortopassi
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Propofol target-controlled infusion modeling in rabbits: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 36:428-433. [PMID: 27376816 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-016-1604-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to establish a new propofol target-controlled infusion (TCI) model in animals so as to study the general anesthetic mechanism at multi-levels in vivo. Twenty Japanese white rabbits were enrolled and propofol (10 mg/kg) was administrated intravenously. Artery blood samples were collected at various time points after injection, and plasma concentrations of propofol were measured. Pharmacokinetic modeling was performed using WinNonlin software. Propofol TCI within the acquired parameters integrated was conducted to achieve different anesthetic depths in rabbits, monitored by narcotrend. The pharmacodynamics was analyzed using a sigmoidal inhibitory maximal effect model for narcotrend index (NI) versus effect-site concentration. The results showed the pharmacokinetics of propofol in Japanese white rabbits was best described by a two-compartment model. The target plasma concentrations of propofol required at light anesthetic depth was 9.77±0.23 μg/mL, while 12.52±0.69 μg/mL at deep anesthetic depth. NI was 76.17±4.25 at light anesthetic depth, while 27.41±5.77 at deep anesthetic depth. The effect-site elimination rate constant (ke0) was 0.263/min, and the propofol dose required to achieve a 50% decrease in the NI value from baseline was 11.19 μg/mL (95% CI, 10.25-13.67). Our results established a new propofol TCI animal model and proved the model controlled the anesthetic depth accurately and stably in rabbits. The study provides a powerful method for exploring general anesthetic mechanisms at different anesthetic depths in vivo.
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10
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Errata. Vet Anaesth Analg 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2012.00762.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Miyabe-Nishiwaki T, Masui K, Kaneko A, Nishiwaki K, Nishio T, Kanazawa H. Evaluation of the predictive performance of a pharmacokinetic model for propofol in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2012; 36:169-73. [PMID: 22568878 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2012.01404.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Propofol is a short-acting intravenous anesthetic used for induction/maintenance anesthesia. The objective of this study was to assess a population pharmacokinetic (PPK) model for Japanese macaques during a step-down infusion of propofol. Five male Japanese macaques were immobilized with ketamine (10 mg/kg) and atropine (0.02 mg/kg). A bolus dose of propofol (5 mg/kg) was administrated intravenously (360 mg/kg/h) followed by step-down infusion at 40 mg/kg/h for 10 min, 20 mg/kg/h for 10 min, and then 15 mg/kg/h for 100 min. Venous blood samples were repeatedly collected following the administration. The plasma concentration of propofol (Cp) was measured by high-speed LC-FL. PPK analyses were performed using NONMEM VII. Median absolute prediction error and median prediction error (MDPE), the indices of prediction inaccuracy and bias, respectively, were calculated, and PE - individual MDPE vs. time was depicted to show the variability of prediction errors. In addition, we developed another population pharmacokinetic model using previous and current datasets. The previous PK model achieved stable prediction of propofol Cp throughout the study period, although it underestimates Cp. The step-down infusion regimen described in this study would be feasible in macaques during noninvasive procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Miyabe-Nishiwaki
- Center of Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Aichi University, Kyoto, Japan
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